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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon%20Henkin
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Leon Henkin
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Leon Albert Henkin (April 19, 1921, Brooklyn, New York - November 1, 2006, Oakland, California) was one of the most important logicians and mathematicians of the 20th century. His works played a strong role in the development of logic, particularly in the theory of types. He was an active scholar at the University of California, Berkeley, where he made great contributions as a researcher, teacher, as well as in administrative positions. At this university he directed, together with Alfred Tarski, the Group in Logic and the Methodology of Science, from which many important logicians and philosophers emerged. He had a strong sense of social commitment and was a passionate defensor of his pacifist and progressive ideas. He took part in many social projects aimed at teaching mathematics, as well as projects aimed at supporting women's and minority groups to pursue careers in mathematics and related fields. A lover of dance and literature, he appreciated life in all its facets: art, culture, science and, above all, the warmth of human relations. He is remembered by his students for his great kindness, as well as for his academic and teaching excellence.
Henkin is mainly known for his completeness proofs of diverse formal systems, such as type theory and first-order logic (the completeness of the latter, in its weak version, had been proven by Kurt Gödel in 1929). To prove the completeness of Type Theory, Henkin introduces new semantics, based on certain structures, called general models (also known as Henkin models). The change of semantics that he proposed permits to provide a complete deductive calculus for Type Theory and for Second-Order Logic, amongst other logics. Henkin methods have aided to prove various model theory results, both in classical and non-classical logics. Besides logic, the other branch on which his investigations were centered was algebra; he specialized in cylindric algebras, in which he worked together with A. Tarski and D. Monk. As for the philosophy of mathematics, although the works in which he explicitly approaches it are scarce, he can be considered to have a nominalist position.
Life
Childhood and first youth
Leon Albert Henkin was born on April 19, 1921, in Brooklyn, New York, to a Jewish family that had emigrated from Russia a generation earlier. The first of the family to emigrate was Abraham Henkin, the eldest of the brothers of Leon's father. According to Leon, his father had been extremely proud of him since he was just a boy. His high expectations were evident in the name he gave him: he chose to name his son Albert after a series of articles on Einstein's theory of relativity that the New York Times published shortly before Henkin's birth. His family was sympathetic with pacifist and progressive ideas, and although he was not religious, he had deeply rooted Jewish traditions. Leon grew up surrounded by tight family ties; he was very close to his cousins, with whom he lived during his childhood in Brooklyn.
Henkin studied primarily in New York City public schools; he attended Lincoln High School, where he graduated at age 16 to enter Columbia University. Both in college and high school he was a member of the chess teams; he always preferred games that involved rational thinking to games of chance. In the years of his high school education, Henkin considered becoming a math teacher and also came to desire to become a writer (as he later expressed in a personal letter). Although he dedicated himself to university academic life, he never abandoned his interest in teaching elementary mathematics, to which he later actively contributed.
The first university studies
In 1937 Leon entered Columbia University as a mathematics student. It was during his time at this institution that he developed an interest in logic, which would determine the course of his academic career. His first contact with logic was through B. Russell's book, "Mysticism and Mathematics", which drew his interest during a visit to the library. This interest was increased and cultivated by some courses. Although the mathematics department of the University did not offer courses in Logic (these were offered by the Philosophy department), Leon was one of the few mathematics students interested in that discipline and he decided to attend them. In the fall of 1938, in his second year as a Columbia University student, he participated in a first course in Logic taught by Ernest Nagel, who had contributed to the creation of the Association of Symbolic Logic two years earlier. This course brought him closer to Russell's book "Principles of Mathematics", where he first encountered the axiom of choice; Russell's presentation made a strong impression on him and led him to explore the Principia Mathematica that Russell wrote with Whitehead a few years later. He was struck by the general ideas of Type Theory and by the mysterious axiom of reducibility. Both the axiom of choice and Type Theory later played an important role in his doctoral dissertation.
The following year, in the fall semester of 1939, Henkin took a second course of Logic with Nagel, in which formal systems of propositional logic and First-Order Logic were addressed. These constituted his first experience with the mathematical treatment of deductive systems. The course did not go into metalogical results that established a relationship between the semantics and syntactics, and the issue of completeness was not addressed at all. However, Nagel proposed to Henkin as an independent project the reading of the proof of the completeness of propositional logic given by Quine, which had appeared a few months before in the Journal of Symbolic Logic. This reading was highly significant for Henkin, not so much because of the content itself, but because with it he discovered that he could understand the research on logic and mathematics that was taking place at the time. According to Henkin, although he managed to follow Quine's demonstration, he did not manage to capture the idea of the proof: "I simply noted that the aim of the paper was to show that every tautology had a formal proof in the system of axioms presented, and I expended my utmost effort to check Quine's reasoning that this was so, without ever reflecting on why author and reader were making this effort. This strictly limited objective also kept me from wondering how the author thought of putting the steps of the proof together; the result was that I failed to get 'the idea of the proof', the essential ingredient needed for discovery."
Just before Henkin began his second year at Columbia, World War II broke out. This had several repercussions on his life. One of them had a positive effect on his education. Days before the war broke out, the Polish mathematician and logician Alfred Tarski had come to Harvard, at Quine's invitation, to give a series of lectures on logic. With the invasion of Poland by Germany, Tarski found it impossible to return to Poland and he had to remain in the United States. Tarski visited several cities giving lectures on logic. One of these lectures was at Columbia, and Henkin, like the rest of the logic students, attended it with great enthusiasm. In it Tarski spoke of Gödel's work on undecidable propositions in Type Theory and on the existence of decision algorithms for formal systems, a subject that Henkin found extremely stimulating.
In his last year at Columbia, in 1941, Professor F. J. Murray, knowing that Henkin was a mathematics student interested in Logic, suggested that they review together the monograph by Gödel recently published at Princeton on the consistency of the axiom of choice with the generalized continuum hypothesis. Although the meetings they had to discuss it were scarce and Leon ended up revising this monograph practically alone, the experience was considered by him as the most enriching one in his formation at Columbia. According to Henkin, then began to take form some of the ideas that became the starting-point of his doctoral dissertation.
In 1940, Henkin decided to apply for admission to a doctoral program, without having fully defined what path to follow in his research. He was accepted to three universities, from which he chose Princeton, since the renowned logician Alonzo Church was there, although at the time Henkin was unaware of his work.
Postgraduate Studies
Henkin began his graduate studies at Princeton in 1941, studying under the direction of Church. The Ph.D. program he attended consisted of two years of mathematics courses, after which he was to take a "qualifying" oral examination to show he was well educated in at least three branches of mathematics; with this he would receive a M.A. degree. He would then have another two years to write a doctoral dissertation containing an original research, after which he would get the degree of Ph.D.
The first two years he took courses in logic -taught by Church-, analysis and general topology. In the first logic course with Church were studied several formal systems of Propositional Logic and First-Order Logic; some proofs of completeness and discussed part of the Löwenheim-Skolem theorems were revised, as well as a presentation of Gödel's proof on the completeness of First-Order Logic. In the second one they dealt in great detail with a Second-Order system for Peano Arithmetic, as well as with the incompleteness of this axiomatic theory and the consequent incompleteness of Second-Order Logic.
In 1942 the United States entered the Second World War, altering Henkin's plans. He had to rush his oral qualification exam, with which he obtained the degree of M. A. and left Princeton to take part in the Manhattan Project. This interruption would last four years, during which he contributed his mathematical knowledge working on radar problems and in the design of a plant to separate uranium isotopes. Most of his work required numerical analysis to solve partial differential equations. During this period, all of his work and readings on logic were completely suspended.
Once the war was over, Henkin returned to Princeton in 1946, where he was still required to write a dissertation to complete his Ph.D. studies. Upon his return he joined the logic course that Church had begun a month earlier on Frege's theory of "sense and reference". In this course he discovered Church's theory of types, which he found extremely interesting. The questions he asked about it eventually led him to give his proof of the completeness of the theory of types, which he was able to adapt to also give a new proof of the completeness of First-Order Logic. These results, as well as others that other that emerged from the same ideas, came to take part in Henkin's doctoral dissertation, which was titled "The completeness of formal systems", with which he graduated in June 1947. The dissertation itself was not published, although parts of it were rewritten and published in articles, and. Many years later, Henkin wrote the article "The discovery of my completeness proofs", which contains a detailed review of the contents of his dissertation. The procedures used in it have become frequent methods of proofs in various branches of logic.
After the graduation
Having obtained his Ph.D. degree, Henkin spent two more years at Princeton working on post-doctoral studies. During this time, in 1948, he met Ginette Potvin, during a trip to Montreal with his sister Estelle and Princeton mathematics graduate student Harold Kuhn. Ginette would become his wife in 1950, a half year after Estelle married Harold. After completing his second year of postdoctoral studies at Princeton in 1949, Leon returned to California, where he entered the mathematics department at the University of Southern California. There he held the position of assistant professor until 1953.
In 1952 Tarski had managed to obtain a permanent position at Berkeley for Henkin. However, Henkin did not want to accept it, as he was sympathetic to the protests recently raised by the controversial oath of allegiance that had been required of university professors since 1950. Once the oath requirement dissaperead, Henkin accepted Tarski's offer and settled in Berkeley in 1953.
His life in Berkeley
From 1953, most of Henkin's academic activity revolved around Berkeley, where he collaborated with a solid research group in Logic. He remained there for almost all his academic life, except for some periods in which he traveled abroad with scholarships and grants of diverse institutes, like the one-year stay he had in Amsterdam or the one in Israel with the Fulbright Research Grants he was awarded (in 1954 and 1979 respectively).
Henkin was always grateful to Tarski, as it was thanks to him that he was able to settle in Berkeley. After Tarski's death in 1983, he wrote in a personal letter: “I write to tell you that Alfred Tarski, who came to Berkeley in 1942 and founded our great Center for the Study of Logic and Foundations, died Wednesday night, at age 82 [...]. It was he who brought me to Berkeley in 1953, so I owe much to him personally as well as scientifically.”
Tarski not only offered Henkin a job opportunity, but also provided him with a very fertile interdisciplinary collaborative environment for the development of Logic. Tarski had founded the Center for the Study of Logic and Foundations in Berkeley, but with Henkin's help he was able to bring together a group of logicians, mathematicians and philosophers who formed the Group in Logic and the Methodology of Science, which is still active today. As part of this project they created an interdisciplinary postgraduate program culminating in a Ph.D. Tarski and Henkin boosted the project by organizing important congresses and conferences on Logic, following Tarski's conception of "logic as a common basis for the whole of human knowledge". The intense activity that took place in Berkeley in the 1950s and 1960s on metalogic was largely due to the activity of Tarski and Henkin, both in teaching and research. Many results of what are today crucial to Model Theory came as a result of the academic activity in Berkeley that took place in those years.
Among the research trips that Henkin did throughout the years are his visits to universities in Hanover, Princeton, Colorado, as well as to several European Universities, such as Oxford (in the United Kingdom), and others in Yugoslavia, Spain, Portugal and France. In 1979, with his second Fulbright Grant, Henkin spent a year in Israel, in Haifa, at the Department of Science Education of the Technion University. On this occasion he also visited two universities in Egypt. In 1982 he first visited Spain. He gave conferences at several universities, including those in Barcelona, Madrid and Seville.
Henkin had an active role in research and teaching, but his activities at the university went far beyond that. In addition to the dedication he put in his teaching as well as and in guiding the Group in Logic and the Methodology of Science, he held some administrative positions; he was director of the Department of Mathematics from 1966 to 1968, and subsequently from 1983 to 1985. One of the activities to which he devoted most energy was the teaching of mathematics, on which he also did some research.
On some occasions Henkin attended to his children's schools to talk to elementary school children about maths, talking to them about "the negative numbers", or "how to subtract by addition". Around that time (about 1960), Henkin began to alternate his research work in mathematics with research work in teaching mathematics; the latter became increasingly frequent.
In 1991 he was granted the title of Professor Emeritus at the University of Berkeley and retired.
Retirement and death
After he retired, Henkin continued to work on math teaching projects. From 1991, he took part on a summer courses program at Mills College intended to give talented women from across the nation education in mathematics in order to prepare them for college. Finally, Ginette and Henkin moved to Oakland, where Henkin died a few years later, in November 2006.
Always kind to his students and colleagues, whom he frequently invited to his home to enjoy evenings with Ginette, he is remembered as a brilliant researcher, a teacher committed to his discipline and a person who showed solidarity with his community.
One of the phrases that best captures the sentiment expressed in various testimonies of his students is that given by Douglas Hofstadter: "I feel very fortunate to have been his graduate student since I learned from him much more than logic. It is his humanity that conquered my heart. I always wish I am not less kind to my graduate students and no less eager to follow their professional growth after graduation than he was to me".
Legacy
Algebra
Henkin's work on algebra focused on cylindric algebras, a subject he investigated together with Alfred Tarski and Donald Monk. Cylindric Algebra provides structures that are to first-order logic what Boolean algebra is to propositional logic. One of the purposes of Henkin and Tarski in promoting algebraic logic was to attract the interest of mathematicians to logic, convinced as they were that logic could provide unifying principles to mathematics: "In fact we would go so far as to venture a prediction that through logical research there may emerge important unifying principles which will help to give coherence to a mathematics which sometimes seems in danger of becoming infinitely divisible".
According to Monk, Henkin's research on cylindrical algebra can be divided into the following parts: Algebraic Theory, Algebraic Set Theory, Representation Theorems, Non-representable Algebraic Constructions and Applications to Logic.
Completeness Theorems
In 1949 "The completeness of the first order functional calculus" was published, as well as "Completeness in the theory of types" in 1950. Both presented part of the results exposed in the dissertation "The completeness of formal systems" with which Henkin received his Ph.D. degree at Princeton in 1947. One of Henkin's best known results is that of the completeness of First-Order Logic, published in the above-mentioned 1949 article, which appears as the first theorem of the 1947 dissertation. It states the following:Any set of sentences of formally consistent in the deductive system of is satisfiable by a numerable structure .This theorem is nowadays called the 'completeness theorem', since from it the following easily follows:If is a set of sentences of and is semantic consequence of , then is deducible from .This is the strong version of the completeness theorem, from which the weak version is obtained as a corollary. The latter states the result for the particular case in which is the empty set, this is to say, the deductive calculus of first order logic is capable of deriving all valid formulas. The weak version, known as Gödel's completeness theorem, had been proved by Gödel in 1929, in his own doctoral thesis. Henkin's proof is more general, more accessible than Gödel's and more easily generalizable to languages of any cardinality. It approaches completeness from a new and fruitful perspective and its greatest quality is perhaps that its proof can be easily adapted to prove the completeness of other deductive systems. Other results central to model theory are obtained as corollaries of the strong completeness of the first order logic proved by Henkin. From it follows, for example, the following result for a first order language :Every set of well-formed formulas of that is satisfiable in a −structure is satisfiable in an infinite numerable structure.This result is known as the "downwards" Löwenheim-Skolem theorem. One other result obtained from the completeness theorem is: A set of well-formed formulas of has a model if and only if each finite subset of it has a model. The latter is known as the "compactness theorem" of first-order logic, which can also be phrased as: "Any set of well formed formulas of that is finitely satisfiable is satisfiable". This is to say, if for each of the finite subsets of there is a structure in which all of its formulas are true, then there is also a structure in which all the formulas of are true. It is known as "compactness theorem" because it corresponds to the compactness of a certain topological space, defined from semantic notions.
Among the other theorems of completeness given by Henkin, the most relevant is perhaps that of the completeness of Church's Theory of Types, which is the first of the completeness theorems Henkin proved. Then, he adapted the method developed in that proof to prove the completeness of other deductive systems. This method has continued to be used to give proofs of completeness in both classical and non-classical logics, and it has become the usual proof of completeness for First-Order Logic in Logic textbooks. When Henkin published this result in 1949, completeness was not even part of the canonical subjects covered by the textbooks; some twenty years later, this theorem, along with its proof and corollaries, was part of virtually every Logic textbook. As for non-classical logics, Henkin's method can be used, among other things, to extend the completeness of Fuzzy Logic from first order to higher order, producing a complete Fuzzy Type Theory; it also offers a way to obtain results that link classical logic with intuitionist logic; and it allows one to test results of completeness in other non-classical logics, as in the cases of Hybrid Type Theory and Equational Hybrid Propositional Type Theory.
The Discovery of the Completeness Theorems
Despite being one of his best known results, Henkin got to the proof of the completeness of first-order logic "accidentally", trying to prove a completely different result. The order of publication of his articles and even the order of presentation of the theorems in his 1947 dissertation does not reflect the evolution that followed the ideas that led him to his completeness results. However, Henkin simplifies the difficult task of tracing the development and shaping of his ideas by his article "The discovery of my completeness proofs", published in 1996. In it, he describes the process of the development of his dissertation. He doesn't only explain the content of his work, but he also explains the ideas that led to it, from his first logic courses in College until the end of the writing of his thesis.
At the end of the war, Henkin returned to Princeton to complete his doctoral studies, for which he still had to write a dissertation containing an original research. As soon as he arrived at Princeton, he attended Church's course in logic that had begun one month earlier, which dealt with Frege's theory of "sense and reference". Motivated by Frege's ideas, Church wanted to put them into practice through a formal axiomatic theory. To do so, he took the simple Theory of Types he had published a few years earlier, and supplied it with a hierarchy of types, inspired by the idea of "sense" exposed by Frege. It was in this course that Henkin became acquainted with Church's Theory of Types, which he found of great interest. He immediately made a conjecture about it, whose proof he hoped could become his doctoral dissertation.
One of the attributes that drew Henkin's attention to Church's Theory of Types was that the -operator allowed to name many objects in the type hierarchy. As he explains in "The discovery of my completeness proofs", he set out to find out which elements had names in this theory. He began by exploring the elements that were named in the two domains at the base of the type hierarchy. He took as the universe of individuals, and added a constant for each the number and the successor function , so that each element in the domain was named from and repeated occurrences of . Going up through the hierarchy, he tried to specify which functions over those elements were nameable. The set of them was supernumerable, so there had to be some without a name, since there is only a numerable number of expressions. How could be said which elements were the nameable ones? To make each expression correspond to the element it denotated, he needed a choice function, in whose search Henkin invested many efforts. Finally, he realized that by means of the deductive calculus he could form equivalence classes of expressions whose equality could be derived by the calculus, and form with these classes a model isomorphic to the new hierarchy of types formed by the named elements. He had been focusing on the interpretations of the formal language, when the key to solving the problem lied on the deductive system. It remained to make the universe of the objects named by the propositions a set of two elements: the truth values. This could be achieved by expanding the axioms to form a maximally consistent set. Once this was achieved, it could be proved that every consistent set of formulas has a model that satisfies exactly the formulas of –the elements of such model are the equivalence classes of the expressions themselves–. That is, he would have managed to give a proof of the completeness of the deductive calculus.
The same method used to prove the completeness of Church's Theory of Types could easily be adapted to give a proof of (strong) completeness of First-Order Logic, and of others that followed later on. The ideas on the nameable elements in the hierarchy of types underlying the discovery of Henkin's completeness proofs led to the successful introduction of new semantics, called general semantics, which are based on general models (or Henkin models).
Henkin's method
Henkin's method to give the completeness proofs consists on building a certain model: it starts with a set of formulas , of which the consistency is assumed. A model is then constructed, which satisfies exactly the formulas of . Henkin's idea to build a suitable model relies on obtaining a sufficiently detailed description of such model using the sentences of the formal language, and to establish which objects could be the elements of such model. If it were known, for each formula of the language of , if it should be satisfied or not by the model, we would have a comprehensive description of the model that would allow its construction. This is exactly what is being looked for: a set of sentences containing for which it holds that every sentence of the language or its negation belongs to Gamma. In the case of first order logic one more thing is required: that the set be exemplified, this is, for all existential formula there is a constant that acts as a witness of it. On the other hand, since the nature of the objects that make up the model's universe is irrelevant, no objection arises against taking as individuals the terms of the language themselves –or classes of equivalence of them–.
The first step that must be taken is to extend the language of adding an infinite collection of new individual constants, and then to order the formulas of the language (which are infinite). Once this is done, the aim is to inductively construct an infinite chain of consistent and exemplified sets: we start from , systematically adding to this set every formula that doesn't make the resulting set inconsistent, adding also exemplifications of the existential formulas. Thus, an infinite chain of consistent and exemplified sets is built, whose union is a maximally consistent and exemplified set; this will be the required set .
Having achieved to construct this maximally consistent and exemplified set, the model described by it can be constructed. Which individuals constitute the model's universe? In the case of First-Order Logic without equality, the elements of the domain will be the terms of the formal language. To construct the functions and relations of the model we follow thoroughly what dictates: if the language contains a -relator , its interpretation in the model will be a relationship formed by all the -tuples of terms in the model's universe such that the formula that says they are related belongs to . If the language includes equality, the domain of the model are classes of equivalence of the terms of the language instead. The equivalence relation is established by the formulas of the maximally consistent set: two terms are equal if there is in a formula stating they are.
Summarizing, the demonstration in the case of a numerable language has two parts:
Extending the set to a maximally consistent and exemplified set.
Constructiong the model described by the formulae of this set using the terms of the language –or its equivalence classes– as objects of the model's universe.
General models
The simple Theory of Types, with the -calculus and the standard semantics is sufficiently rich to express arithmetic categorically, from where it follows, by Gödel's incompleteness theorem, that it is incomplete. Following the idea of identifying the namable elements in the hierarchy of types, Henkin proposed a change in the interpretation of the language, accepting as types hierarchies some that previously were not admitted. If it was asked from each level of the hierarchy not that there must be all the corresponding functions, but only those that are definable, then a new semantics is obtained, and with it a new logic. The resulting semantics is known as general semantics. In it the structures that are admissible as models are those known as 'general models'. These can be used not only in Type Theory, but also, for instance, to obtain complete (and compact) Higher-Order Logics.
Obtaining complete Higher-Order Logics by the use of general semantics meets the expected balance between the expressive power of a logic and the power of its deductive calculus. In Second-Order Logic with standard semantics it is known that quantifying over predicative variables gives the language an immense expressive power, in exchange for which the power of deductive calculus is lost: the latter is not enough to produce the extense set of valid formulas of this logic (with standard semantics). Changing the calculus does not solve anything, since Gödel's incompleteness theorem ensures that no deductive calculus could achieve completeness. On the contrary, by changing the semantics, that is, by changing the sets that form the universes in which the predicative variables and constants are interpreted, the logic turns out to be complete, at the cost of losing expressive capacity.
In Second-Order Logic the set of valid formulas is so large because the concept of standard structure is too restrictive and there are not enough of them to find models that refute the formulas. By relaxing the conditions we ask of the structures on which the language is interpreted, there are more models in which the formulas must be true to be valid and therefore the set of valid formulas is reduced; it does so in such a way that it coincides with the set produced by a deductive calculus, giving rise to completeness.
Towards a translation between logics
One of the areas in which the foundations laid by Henkin's work have proved fruitful is in the search for a logic that works as a common framework for translation between logics. This framework is intended to be used as a metalogical tool; its purpose is not to choose "one logic" above the others, which would suppress the richness provided by the diversity of them, but to provide the adequate context to contrast them, understand them and thus make the best use of the qualities of each one.
A research that takes Henkin's ideas in this direction is that of María Manzano, one of his students, whose proposal is to use Many-Sorted Logic as a common framework for the translation of logics. The aims of this proposal can be synthesized into two: 1) to use a single deductive calculus for all of them; and 2) to use the metaproperties of Many-Sorted Logic in order to more easily proof metaproperties of other logics. In addition, having a logical framework is useful for comparing different logics by comparing the theories that represent them. Although Henkin does not speak of formulae translation, nor does he make explicit a Many-Sorted Language or calculus, the ideas he uses in two of his articles serve as a basis for the approach to translation: "Completeness in the theory of types" and "Banishing the Rule of Substitution for Functional Variables".
Mathematical Induction
The topic of mathematical induction was frequently addressed in Henkin's activities on teaching. Probably his experience in this field was the result of his article "On mathematical induction". This was Henkin's favorite article of his own, of which he even wrote that he considered it his best expository article. In it he defined Peano Models as those that fulfill Peano's three Second-Order Axioms and Induction Models as those that satisfy the third of them: the induction axiom. He demonstrated that although all recursive operations can be introduced in the Peano models, this is not the case in the Induction Models. Concretely, there are Induction Models in which the exponentiation operation cannot be defined. In this article, Henkin also presents the mathematical structure that Induction models can have, which is quite simple: they can either be the standard model, that is, isomorphic to natural numbers, or in two more ways; isomorphic to cycles –which correspond to the integers module ; or isomorphsicn to what Henkin called "spoons," which is a combination of a finite list followed by a cycle.
Philosophical position
Of the articles published by Henkin, the most philosophical is "Some Notes on Nominalism", which he wrote in response to two articles on nominalism, one by Quine and the other jointly written by Quine and Goodman. The discussions relevant to this philosophical doctrine arise naturally in the proofs of completeness given by Henkin, as well as in his proposal for a change in semantics through general models. Both from the content of his works and from his own statements it is considered that his position was nominalist.
Teaching
Henkin's activity as a university professor was vigorous. He taught at all levels, putting the same care and dedication into each of them. Some of the courses he taught were directly related to his research area, such as "Mathematical Logic", "Metamathematics" or "Cylindric Algebra", but others extended to a great diversity of areas, including, among others, "Fundaments of Geometry", "Algebra and Trigonometry", "Finite Mathematics", "Calculus with Analytic Geometry" or "Mathematical Concepts for Elementary School Teachers". His students agree that his explanations were extremely clear and caught the listener's attention. In the words of one of his students, "part of his magic was his elegant expression of the mathematics, but he also worked hard to engage his audience in conjecturing and seeing the next step or in being surprised by it. He certainly captured the interest of his audiences."
One of the aspects of his lectures in which he put special care was in finding an appropriate pace, facing the constant dilemma of how to find the optimal speed for learning. He considered it important that the students could follow the rhythm of the class, even if this meant that some would found it slow –they could continue at their own pace with the readings. However, he also considered that what was easily learned was easily forgotten, so he sought a balance between making his classes accessible and challenging for students, so that they would make the effort to learn more deeply. About his own experience as a student, he commented in an interview: "That easy way in which ideas came made it too easy to forget them. I probably learned more densely condensed material in what we called the 'seminar for babies in conjunctive topology', conducted by Arthure Stone. I learned more because it forced us to do all the work."
In addition to his courses and supervision of graduate students, Henkin's role in the scholars education was significant. Tarski had invited him to Berkeley with a clear purpose. As a mathematician, Henkin had a key role in Tarski's project to make Berkeley a center of development of logic, bringing together mathematicians, logicians and philosophers. Henkin aided him to carry out the project, helping him in the creation of the interdisciplinary Group in Logic and the Methodology of Science, whose successful performance was largely due to Henkin's drive. Part of this project was the creation of an interdisciplinary university program that culminated in a Ph.D. in "Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science". He also collaborated in organising important meetings and conferences that promoted interdisciplinary collaboration united by logic. The outcome was that in the 1950s and 1960s there was a vibrant development of logic in Berkeley, from which many advances in Model Theory emerged.
Although Henkin's first encounter with teaching mathematics was as a professor, later in life he began to do research in mathematics' teaching as well. Some of his writings in this field are: "Retracing Elementary Mathematics", "New directions in secondary school mathematics" or "The roles of action and of thought in mathematics education". From 1979 onwards he put special emphasis on this facet of his research and the last doctoral theses he directed are related to the teaching of mathematics or the integration of minority groups in research.
Henkin liked to write expository articles, for some of which he received awards such as the Chauvenet Prize (1964), for the article "Are Logic and Mathematics Identical? " or the Lester R. Ford Award, for the article "Mathematical Foundations of Mathematics".
Social Projects
Throughout his life, Leon Henkin showed a deep commitment to society and was often called a social activist. Many of his mathematics teaching projects sought to bring minority or socially disadvantaged groups closer to mathematics and related areas. He was aware that we are part of history and the context around us, as one of his writings records:"Waves of history wash over our nation, stirring up our society and our institutions. Soon we see changes in the way that all of us do things, including our mathematics and our teaching. These changes form themselves into rivulets and streams that merge at various angles with those arising in parts of our society quite different from education, mathematics, or science. Rivers are formed, contributing powerful currents that will produce future waves of history.
The Great Depression and World War II formed the background of my years of study; the Cold War and the Civil Rights Movement were the backdrop against which I began my career as a research mathematician, and later began to involve myself with mathematics education."Henkin was convinced that changes could be achieved through education and, true to his idea, he committed himself to both elementary mathematics education programs and to programs whose aim was to combat exclusion. He showed a political commitment to society, defending progressive ideas. He inspired many of his students to become involved in mathematics education. Diane Resek, one of his students with an affinity for teaching, described him as follows: "Leon was committed to work toward equity in society. He was able to see that profes- sional mathematicians could make a difference, particularly regarding racial inequities in the United States. He was one of the first people to say that one thing holding back racial minorities and poorer people in America was their low participation rates in math/science careers. He believed that there were ways of teaching and new programs that could correct this problem."Aware of the contributions that mathematicians could make through teaching, Henkin defended that teaching should be valued in the academy environment, as he expressed in a personal letter: "In these times when our traditionally trained mathematics Ph.D.’s are finding rough going in the marketplace, it seems to me that we on the faculty should particularly seek new realms wherein mathematics training can make a substantial contribution to the basic aims of society."
Some of the social projects he formed or participated in are the following. Between 1957 and 1959 he was part of the Summer Institutes, aimed at mathematics teachers and dedicated to improving high school and college education. In 1958 the National Science Foundation authorized the committee of the American Mathematical Society –which had been interested for some years in the use of films and visual material for mathematics education– to produce experimental films for this purpose, accompanied by printed manuals with appendices that would go deeper into the content and problems to be solved. Henkin participated in this project with a film on mathematical induction, whose supplementary manual was printed by the American Mathematical Society. The film was broadcast in the series "Mathematics Today". Between 1961 and 1964, he participated in a series of courses for elementary school teachers, organized by the Committee on the Undergraduate Program in Mathematics. Also around that time, he promoted the Activities to Broaden Opportunity initiative, which sought to provide opportunities for promising students from ethnic minority groups by offering them summer courses and scholarships. He took part in the SEED (Special Elementary Education for the Disadvantaged) program, which encouraged college students to participate in elementary education, as well as in SESAME (Special Excellence in Science and Mathematics Education), the interdisciplinary doctoral program created by members of various science departments, whose purpose was to research teaching and learning of science, engineering, and mathematics. Between 1960 and 1968 he participated in a series of conferences in mathematics schools, and was involved in the development of several films produced by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). These films dealt with topics such as the integer system and the rational number system. He also participated in support courses for female calculus students and convinced the mathematics department to allow graduate students to receive the same financial support for working as elementary school teachers as they did for working as assistant teachers in college. "He not only believed in equality, but also worked actively to see that it was brought about."
Henkin's Main Articles
Henkin, L. (1949). The completeness of the first-order functional calculus. The Journal of Symbolic Logic, 14(3), 159-166.
Henkin, L. (1950). Completeness in the theory of types. The Journal of Symbolic Logic, 15(2), 81-91.
Henkin, L. (1953). Banishing the Rule of Substitution for Functional Variables. The Journal of Symbolic Logic, 18(3), 201-208.
Henkin, L. (1953). Some interconnections between modern algebra and mathematical logic. Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, 74, 410-427.
Henkin, L. (1953). Some notes on nominalism, The Journal of Symbolic Logic, 18(1), 19-29.
Henkin, L. (1954) A generalization of the concept of $\omega$-consistency. The Journal of Symbolic Logic. 19(3), 183-196.
Henkin, L. (1955) The nominalistic interpretation of mathematical language. Bulletin of the Belgian Mathematical Society. 7, 137-141.
Henkin, L. (1955) The representation theorem for cylindrical algebras. En Skolem, Th., Hasenjaeger, G., Kreisel, G., Robinson, A. (Eds.) Mathematical Interpretation of Formal Systems, pp. 85–97.
Henkin, L. (1957) A generalization of the concept of -completeness. The Journal of Symbolic Logic. 22(1), 1-14.
Henkin, L. (1960). On mathematical induction. The American Mathematical Monthly. 67(4), 323-338.
Henkin, L. (1961). Mathematical Induction. En MAA Film Manual No.1 The Mathematical Association of America, University of Buffalo, Nueva York.
Henkin, L., Tarski, A. (1961) Cylindric algebras. En Dilworth, R.P. (Ed.) Lattice Theory. Proceedings of Symposia in Pure Mathematics. American Mathematical Society, 2, 83-113.
Henkin, L. Smith, W. N., Varineau, V. J., Walsh, M. J. (1962) Retracing Elementary Mathematics. Macmillan, New York.
Henkin, L. (1962). Are logic and mathematics identical?, Science, vol.138, 788-794.
Henkin, L. (1963). New directions in secondary school mathematics. En Ritchie, R. W. (Ed.) New Directions in Mathematics, 1-6. Prentice Hall, New York.
Henkin, L. (1963). An Extension of the Craig-Lyndon Interpolation theorem. The Journal of Symbolic Logic. 28(3), 201-216.
Henkin, L. (1963). A theory of propositional types. Fundamenta mathematicae. 52, 323-344.
Henkin, L. (1971). Mathematical foundations for mathematics. The American Mathematical Monthly. 78(5), 463-487.
Henkin, L. (1975). Identity as a logical primitive. Philosophia 5, 31-45.
Henkin, L. (1977). The logic of equality.The American Mathematical Monthly. 84(8), 597-612.
Henkin, L. (1995). The roles of action and of thought in mathematics education –one mathematician's passage. Fisher, N.D., Keynes, H.B., Wagreich, Ph.D. (Eds.), Changing the Culture: Mathematics Education in the Research Community, CBMS Issues in Mathematics Education, vol. 5, pp. 3–16. American Mathematical Society in cooperation with Mathematical Association of America, Providence.
Henkin, L. (1996). The discovery of my completeness proofs, Bulletin of Symbolic Logic, vol. 2(2), 127-158.
Awards received
1964 — The Chauvenet Prize, Mathematical Association of America award to the author of an outstanding expository article on a mathematical topic by a member of the Association.
1972 — Lester R. Ford Award — for Mathematical foundations for mathematics, American Mathematical Monthly 78 (1971), 463–487.
1990 — First recipient of the Gung and Hu Award for Distinguished Service to Mathematics.
1991 — Berkeley Citation — the highest honor/award bestowed by the University of California.
2000 — Leon Henkin Citation — for Distinguished Service, which is presented to a (UC) faculty member for "exceptional commitment to the educational development of students from groups who are underrepresented in the academy."
See also
Branching quantifier
References
Further reading
Henkin, Leon (1949). "The Completeness of the First-Order Functional Calculus", Journal of Symbolic Logic. 14: 159–166.
Henkin, Leon (1949). "Fragments of the propositional calculus", The Journal of Symbolic Logic 14: 42–48.
Henkin, Leon (1950). "Completeness in the theory of types", Journal of Symbolic Logic 15: 81–91.
Henkin, Leon (1996). «The Discovery of My Completeness Proofs». Bulletin of Symbolic Logic 2 (2): 127-158. ISSN 1079-8986. doi:10.2307/421107.
Manzano, María, Sain, Ildikó, Alonso, Enrique (Eds.). (2014). "The Life and Work of Leon Henkin", Birkhauser.
External links
Berkeley Citation Award
An interview with Henkin and others about their experiences at Princeton
An interview with Henkin about his experience at Princeton
Leon Henkin, advocate for diversity in math & science, has died by Robert Sanders, UC Berkeley News press release, November 9, 2006.
Obituaries: Leon Henkin, 85: professor steered minorities and women to math by Valerie J. Nelson, Los Angeles Times, November 16, 2006, p. B-6.
Leon A. Henkin—Cal math educator by Rick DelVecchio, San Francisco Chronicle, November 20, 2006, p. B-3.
In Memoriam: Leon Albert Henkin by John Addison, William Craig, Carolyn Kane, and Alan Schoenfeld (University of California Academic Senate memorial).
In Memoriam: Leon Albert Henkin, 1921–2006 by J. Donald Monk, The Bulletin of Symbolic Logic, vol. 15, no. 3 (Sept. 2009), pp. 326–331.
1921 births
2006 deaths
20th-century American mathematicians
21st-century American mathematicians
Columbia College (New York) alumni
Princeton University alumni
University of California, Berkeley College of Letters and Science faculty
Henkin|Henkin, Leon
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Manhattan Project people
People from Brooklyn
Mathematicians from New York (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone%20Cold%20Steve%20Austin
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Stone Cold Steve Austin
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Steve Austin (born Steven James Anderson, December 18, 1964; later Steven James Williams) is an American television host, actor, and retired professional wrestler who competed under the name "Stone Cold" Steve Austin. Widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential professional wrestlers of all time, Austin was integral to the development and success of the Attitude Era in the WWF, an industry boom period in the late 1990s and early 2000s.
Austin started his professional wrestling career after playing college football at the University of North Texas. He became "Stunning" Steve Austin in World Championship Wrestling (WCW) from 1991 to 1995, using the character of a handsome man who relied on his good looks and flowing blond hair, and during 1993 he made up one half of the tag team The Hollywood Blonds alongside Brian Pillman. After a brief stint in Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) in late 1995, he signed with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) as The Ringmaster. The following year, having grown a goatee and shaved his head, he was repackaged as "Stone Cold" Steve Austin, a trigger-happy "Texas rattlesnake". Under this gimmick, Austin gained prominent status and significant mainstream popularity as a brash, brazen, blindsiding, beer-drinking antihero, given to disparagingly foul language, mannerisms and shamelessly vulgar acts. Central to this gimmick, Austin routinely defied the establishment and showed the utmost in disdain for his boss, then-WWF chairman Mr. McMahon. Austin thus became the "poster boy" of the Attitude Era. He was forced to retire from in-ring competition in 2003 due to multiple knee injuries and also a serious neck injury. Throughout the rest of 2003 and 2004, he was featured as an on-screen authority figure of Raw.
Austin held 19 championships throughout his wrestling career. He is a six-time WWF Champion, a two-time WWF Intercontinental Champion, a four-time WWF Tag Team Champion, and a one-time Million Dollar Champion in WWE. In WCW, he was a two-time WCW World Television Champion, a two-time WCW United States Heavyweight Champion, a one-time WCW World Tag Team Champion, and a one-time NWA World Tag Team Champion. In addition, he is the fifth-ever WWE Triple Crown Champion, the winner of the 1996 WWF King of the Ring tournament, and a record three-time Royal Rumble winner. Austin headlined multiple WWE pay-per-view events, including three WrestleManias (XIV, XV, and X-Seven). He was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame in 2009.
Following his wrestling career, Austin started a podcast named The Steve Austin Show and released an IPA beer called the "Broken Skull IPA". Austin hosted a reality competition series, Steve Austin's Broken Skull Challenge, from 2014 to 2017 and has been the star of Straight Up Steve Austin since 2019.
Early life
Austin was born Steven James Anderson in Austin, Texas, on December 18, 1964. His parents, Beverly (née Harrison) and James Anderson, divorced when he was around a year old. His mother moved to Edna, Texas, where Austin would spend most of his childhood, and she married Ken Williams in 1968. Austin adopted his stepfather's surname and legally changed his name to Steven James Williams, though he would legally change it again to Steve Austin later in life. He has three brothers (Scott, Kevin, and Jeff) and a younger sister, Jennifer. Kevin is less than a year younger than Austin, leading Austin to theorize in his autobiography that their father may have left because he could not handle another child so soon. After finishing his education at Edna High School, he got a football scholarship to Wharton County Junior College followed by a full scholarship to the University of North Texas. Austin played originally as a linebacker before suffering a knee injury, prompting him to switch to play as a defensive end.
The first wrestling events he watched were those produced by Houston Wrestling and run by Paul Boesch, and Austin would later say "I fell in love with the business when I was 7 or 8 years old. All I ever wanted to be was a professional wrestler. Wrestling was the biggest thing in my life". When Austin moved to attend university, he was living approximately 30 miles from the Dallas Sportatorium, a building he describes fondly as a "magnificent shit hole of a building", where World Class Championship Wrestling (WCCW) ran shows on a Friday night.
Professional wrestling career
Early career (1989–1990)
Deciding to become a wrestler, Austin joined "Gentleman" Chris Adams's school in the Dallas Sportatorium, where Adams also wrestled for WCCW; the first seminar cost Austin $45. Adams's training was purely technical, teaching Austin the moves, but nothing relating to kayfabe (still somewhat a guarded secret at the time) or business. Austin would later describe Adams as a "conman" who "didn't try to smarten me up or teach me the real deal when it came to wrestling".
His first lesson in that came from Tony Falk, the referee in his 1989 televised WCCW debut against Frogman LeBlanc, who called the spots to lead him to a pinfall and a $40 payday. Early influences on his career were the Von Erich family, Dusty Rhodes, and Ric Flair.
Initially working under his real name, he was renamed Steve Austin by Memphis booker Dutch Mantell during the merger of WCCW and the Continental Wrestling Association (CWA) into the United States Wrestling Association (USWA). The name change occurred to avoid confusion with "Dr. Death" Steve Williams, a well-known wrestler during that time. Austin later returned to Dallas, managed by Percy Pringle and accompanied by Jeannie Adams (Adams's ex-girlfriend and Austin's girlfriend at the time) and feuded with Adams and his wife Toni. Austin then left the USWA in 1990.
World Championship Wrestling
The Dangerous Alliance (1991–1992)
Arriving in WCW, he was now nicknamed "Stunning" Steve Austin, a name and gimmick he later said he couldn't commit to. Austin was originally paired with a valet named Vivacious Veronica but was later joined by Jeannie Adams, known as "Lady Blossom." Just weeks after his debut, Austin defeated Bobby Eaton for his first WCW World Television Championship on June 3, 1991, and later that year joined Paul E. Dangerously's Dangerous Alliance. Austin lost the WCW World Television Championship to Barry Windham in a two-out-of-three-falls match on April 27, 1992, but later regained the championship from Windham and enjoyed a second lengthy reign as champion, before losing the championship to Ricky Steamboat, while The Dangerous Alliance disbanded shortly thereafter. At Halloween Havoc, Austin replaced Terry Gordy, teaming with "Dr. Death" Steve Williams to wrestle Dustin Rhodes and Windham for the unified WCW and NWA World Tag Team Championships. The teams wrestled to a thirty-minute time limit draw.
The Hollywood Blonds and The Stud Stable (1993–1995)
In October 1992, Austin formed a tag team known as The Hollywood Blonds with Brian Pillman, at the behest of lead booker Dusty Rhodes. Austin would later say that he wasn't excited about being placed into a tag team, as he was earmarked for a run with the WCW United States Heavyweight Championship with Harley Race as his manager. Initially billed under their individual personas, Pillman decided the pair needed their own finishing move, ring gear and team name, with travelling partner Scott Levy proposing The Hollywood Blonds, used in the 1970s by Buddy Roberts and Jerry Brown. The pair adopted an "old-style movie camera hand gesture", and informed opponents they had experienced a "brush with greatness".
On March 27, 1993, the team won the unified NWA and WCW World Tag Team Championship by defeating Ricky Steamboat and Shane Douglas, and held the championship for five months. In the main event of Clash of the Champions XXIII, the Blondes defended their championship against Ric Flair and Arn Anderson in a two-out-of-three-falls, where despite losing the first two falls, retained the championship as the second fall had been determined by a disqualification caused by Barry Windham. At Clash of the Champions XXIV, Austin and Pillman were scheduled to defend their championship against Anderson and Paul Roma but a legitimately injured Pillman was replaced by Steven Regal, with whom Austin lost to Anderson and Roma.
With Pillman still injured, Austin joined Colonel Robert Parker's Stud Stable. After Pillman returned, the team was broken up when Austin turned on him, a decision Austin describes as a "mystery". Austin defeated Pillman in a singles match at Clash of the Champions XXV. At Starrcade, Austin defeated Dustin Rhodes 2–0 in a two-out-of-three-falls match to win the United States championship. Austin lost the championship to Ricky Steamboat and was scheduled to face him in a rematch at Fall Brawl; Steamboat was though unable to wrestle due to a legitimate back injury and Austin was awarded the championship by forfeit. His second reign with the championship ended just five minutes later when he lost to Steamboat's replacement, Jim Duggan, in a match that lasted 35 seconds. Austin unsuccessfully challenged Duggan for the championship at both Halloween Havoc and Clash of the Champions XXIX. The influence of Hulk Hogan and the Hulkamania era was beginning to take hold in WCW, with vice president Eric Bischoff saying this was likely the reason Austin lost to Duggan, who had been a popular figure during that period of time. Around this time, Austin pitched a storyline idea to Bischoff, wherein it would be revealed Austin was a family member of Hogan, a proposal which was quickly turned down on account of Bischoff's belief Hogan would not work with somebody who wasn't a proven name such as Austin.
After returning from a knee injury in early 1995, Austin took part in a tournament for the vacant United States championship, defeating Duggan via countout in the first round but losing to Randy Savage in the quarter-final. In June 1995, Austin was fired by Bischoff after suffering a triceps injury while wrestling on a Japanese tour—Bischoff and WCW did not see Austin as a marketable wrestler. Additionally, Bischoff thought Austin was hard to work with.
Extreme Championship Wrestling (1995)
Austin was contacted by Paul Heyman of Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW), who had managed him in WCW. Heyman hired him to do promos and in-ring interviews as he had not adequately recovered from his injury, paying Austin $500 a night. Changing his nickname to "Superstar", Austin debuted in ECW at Gangstas Paradise on September 18, 1995.
While in ECW, Austin used the platform to develop his future "Stone Cold" persona as well as a series of vignettes running down WCW in general and Bischoff in particular, most memorably in several promos that mocked his then-status as Nitro host by introducing Monday NyQuil, where he was joined by "Bongo" (a set of drums, meant to represent Steve "Mongo" McMichael) in promoting the show "where the big boys play with each other." Several wrestlers have credited ECW as the place where Austin developed his microphone skills. Austin has credited Heyman as the man who taught him how to cut a promo.
Whipwreck, who was the ECW World Heavyweight Champion at the time, defeated Austin to retain the championship at November to Remember. The Sandman defeated Austin and Whipwreck in a triple threat match at December to Dismember for the ECW World Heavyweight Championship.
World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment/WWE
The Ringmaster and birth of "Stone Cold" (1995–1996)
Austin joined the WWF after Kevin Nash and Jim Ross helped convince WWF's owner Vince McMahon to hire him in late 1995. He debuted on a 1996 episode of Raw and was awarded the Million Dollar Championship by his manager, Ted DiBiase. Wrestling in his debut match on Raw he defeated Matt Hardy using the moniker "The Ringmaster". While making his first pay-per-view (PPV) appearance at the Royal Rumble, he was scripted to be among the final four wrestlers in the ring, which could have given him an early push; however, The Ringmaster failed to hang onto the ropes after Fatu clotheslined him over and slipped out of the ring early.
Austin soon thought the Ringmaster gimmick was weak and asked for a change. Having battled thinning hair for a few years, Austin shaved his head, saying in a 2017 interview, "After watching the Pulp Fiction movie with Bruce Willis, that's the haircut that inspired me. [...] I was traveling on the road to Pittsburgh with Dustin Rhodes and before I went to the show, I said fuck it. I went into the bathroom with a razor blade and shaved all my hair off. [...] Then I grew the goatee and everything came full circle." By March 11, The Ringmaster moniker (now merely a prefix to his ring name) would be discarded in favor of his most famous ring name, "Stone Cold" Steve Austin. The new name was prompted by his then-wife Jeanie, who told him to drink a cup of tea before it became "stone cold", while his new persona was inspired by serial killer Richard Kuklinski.
Austin wrestled Savio Vega on Raw to a double countout, before defeating him in his first WrestleMania appearance at WrestleMania XII. At In Your House: Good Friends, Better Enemies, Austin lost to Vega in a rematch. At In Your House: Beware of Dog, Austin lost a Caribbean strap match to Vega, with the added stipulation that DiBiase was forced to leave the WWF as a result. DiBiase would later say that nobody foresaw the success Austin would have, and had advised him to ignore the advice given to him by producers and continue what he was doing as success required patience.
Austin 3:16 and rise to superstardom (1996–1997)
Austin's rise to stardom began at the 1996 King of the Ring, where he won the tournament by defeating Jake "The Snake" Roberts. At the time, Roberts was portraying a born-again Christian, which inspired Austin to ad-lib a famous promo during his coronation, mocking Roberts' religious faith and proclaiming the now-iconic catchphrase "Austin 3:16" as derision of the Bible verse John 3:16. Austin's win and rise to stardom proved to be an unexpected stroke of luck. Hunter Hearst Helmsley was originally scheduled to win the tournament, but plans changed as he was punished for taking part in the Curtain Call incident. "Austin 3:16" ultimately became one of the most popular catchphrases in wrestling history, and one of the best-selling T-shirts in WWE merchandise history.
Throughout August and September, Austin spoke about Bret Hart, challenging him constantly and taunting him relentlessly, before Hart finally returned on Raw to challenge Austin to a match at Survivor Series, which he accepted. During an episode of Superstars, old friend Brian Pillman conducted an interview with Austin regarding his upcoming match. After Pillman inadvertently complimented Hart, Austin grew angry and attacked him. He then proceeded to wedge Pillman's ankle in between a steel chair and stomp on it, breaking his ankle in storyline. It would lead to the infamous "Pillman's got a gun" segment on Raw wherein Austin broke into Pillman's home while he was nursing his injury. Pillman had been anticipating him and was armed with a pistol. Just as Austin broke in, Pillman aimed his gun at him before the episode cut to commercial break. The segment was highly controversial for its perceived violence and rare use of profanity in WWF programming. The segment is also credited for paving the way for WWF's shift to more mature programming. At Survivor Series, in a match to determine the number-one contender to the WWF Championship, Hart defeated Austin by using a turnbuckle to push himself backward while locked in the Million Dollar Dream.
During the 1997 Royal Rumble match, Austin was originally eliminated by Hart but the officials did not see it; he snuck back into the ring and eliminated Hart by throwing him over the ropes, winning the match. This led to the first-ever PPV main event of Austin's WWF career at In Your House 13: Final Four, where he competed in a four corners elimination match against Hart, The Undertaker, and Vader for the vacant WWF Championship. Austin was eliminated early from the match after injuring his knee; Hart would win the match and the championship. Hart lost the championship the next night on Raw to Sycho Sid due to Austin's interference, continuing their feud. At WrestleMania 13, Hart defeated Austin in a highly acclaimed submission match with Ken Shamrock as a special referee. During the match, Austin had been cut and was bleeding profusely from his face, but he refused to tap out when Hart locked in his Sharpshooter, and finally passed out from blood loss, losing the match. After the match, Hart continued to hold the Sharpshooter on Austin, who despite his wounds refused any assistance back to the locker room, thus turning Hart heel and Austin babyface in a rare double-turn. Austin portrayed an anti-hero instead of a traditional babyface, and he didn't embrace the fans at first either. Austin eventually got his revenge on Hart in the main event of In Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Taker, defeating him in a match to determine the next contender to The Undertaker's WWF Championship. Austin won when Hart was disqualified due to assistance from The British Bulldog. Austin faced Hart once again in a street fight on April 21 episode of Raw, injuring his opponent's leg with a steel chair during the bout. The match was ruled a no contest, but Austin proceeded to beat Hart while he was on a stretcher in the back of an ambulance. At In Your House 15: A Cold Day in Hell, Austin had The Undertaker down with the Stone Cold Stunner but was distracted by Pillman, allowing The Undertaker to recover and perform a Tombstone Piledriver for the victory.
On Raw, Austin partnered with the returning Shawn Michaels, as they both had a mutual enemy in the Harts. They defeated Owen Hart and The British Bulldog for the WWF Tag Team Championship, his first championship in the WWF. Despite being champions, the two constantly argued and ultimately faced each other in a match at King of the Ring, which ended in a double disqualification after both men attacked the referee. Michaels was later forced to vacate his championship due to an injury. Hart and Bulldog won a tournament to face Austin and a partner of his choice, but he refused to pick a partner and decided to face the duo by himself. Late in the match, a debuting Dude Love came out to offer assistance. Austin accepted and the duo won the match and the titles, making Austin a two-time tag team champion. Austin continued his feud with the Hart family, becoming embroiled in a heated rivalry particularly with Owen, who pinned a distracted Austin and secured victory for The Hart Foundation in the ten-man Tag Team match main event of In Your House 16: Canadian Stampede, where Austin was partnered with Ken Shamrock, Goldust, and The Legion of Doom.
At SummerSlam, Austin and Owen faced each other with the Intercontinental Championship on the line, with Owen adding a stipulation that Austin would have to kiss his buttocks if he lost. During the match, Owen botched a Tombstone Piledriver and dropped Austin on his head, resulting in a legitimate broken neck and temporary paralysis for Austin. As Owen stalled by baiting the audience, Austin managed to crawl over and pin Hart using a roll-up to win the championship. A visibly injured and dazed Austin was helped to his feet by several referees and led to the back. Due to the severity of his neck injury, Austin was forced to relinquish both championships. On September 22, on the first-ever Raw to be broadcast from Madison Square Garden, McMahon told Austin he wasn't physically cleared to compete, and after several weeks of build-up, Austin delivered his Stone Cold Stunner to McMahon, causing the fans in attendance to go "ballistic". Austin was then arrested as part of the storyline, and was sidelined until Survivor Series. However, in the interim he made several appearances, one being at Badd Blood where he was involved in the finish of a match between Owen and Faarooq. Austin hit Faarooq with the Intercontinental Championship belt while the referee's back was turned, causing Hart to win the match. Austin's motive was to keep Owen as champion, as demonstrated when he interfered in Hart's matches on Raw. Austin regained the Intercontinental Championship from Hart at Survivor Series.
With Hart out of the way, Austin set his sights on The Rock, who stole Austin's championship belt after Austin suffered a beating by his Nation of Domination stablemates. In the weeks to come, The Rock began declaring himself to be "the best damn Intercontinental Champion ever." The Rock kept possession of the championship belt until D-Generation X: In Your House, when Austin defeated him to retain the championship and regain the belt. As Austin had used his pickup truck to aid his victory, McMahon ordered him to defend the championship against The Rock the next night on Raw. In an act of defiance, Austin forfeited the championship to The Rock before tossing the belt into the Piscataqua River.
Feud with Vince McMahon (1998–1999)
After Bret Hart's controversial departure for WCW, Austin and Michaels were the top stars in the company. Austin won the 1998 Royal Rumble, lastly eliminating The Rock. The next night on Raw, Austin interrupted Vince McMahon in his presentation of Mike Tyson, who was making a special appearance, over the objection of McMahon referring to Tyson as "the baddest man on the planet." Austin flipped off Tyson, which led to Tyson shoving Austin much to McMahon's embarrassment, who began to publicly disapprove of the prospect of Austin as his champion. Tyson was later announced as "the special enforcer" for the main event at WrestleMania XIV, and aligned himself with Michaels' stable D-Generation X. This led to Austin's WWF Championship match against Michaels at WrestleMania XIV, which he won with help from Tyson, who turned on DX by making the deciding three-count against Michaels and later hit him with his knock-out punch. This was Michaels' last match until 2002 as he had suffered two legitimate herniated discs and another completely crushed at the hands of The Undertaker in a casket match at the Royal Rumble. With Michaels' absence and Austin winning the WWF Championship, the "Austin Era" was ushered in.
On Raw the following night, McMahon presented him with a new championship belt and warned Austin that he did not approve of his rebellious nature, desiring a "corporate champion"; Austin responded with a Stone Cold Stunner. The following week, it appeared Austin had agreed with McMahon, appearing in a suit and tie, before revealing it was a ruse and again attacking McMahon. On April 13, it appeared Austin and McMahon were going to battle out their differences in an actual match, but the match was declared a no-contest when Dude Love made an appearance. This led to a match between Dude Love and Austin at Unforgiven: In Your House, where Austin hit McMahon with a steel chair, then the following month they had a rematch at Over the Edge: In Your House for the WWF Championship. Austin managed to retain the championship despite McMahon acting as the referee and his "Corporate Stooges" (Gerald Brisco and Pat Patterson) as timekeeper and ring announcer, respectively. McMahon continued to do everything he could to ruin Austin and he finally scored a big victory for his side at King of the Ring. Austin lost the WWF Championship to Kane in a First Blood match after The Undertaker accidentally hit him with a steel chair while the ref was incapacitated, despite Austin having knocked Kane unconscious and thwarted an earlier intervention by Mankind.
Austin further angered McMahon by winning back the championship the next night on Raw. Austin also emerged victorious against The Undertaker at SummerSlam. In response, McMahon set up a Triple Threat match at Breakdown: In Your House, where The Undertaker and Kane pinned Austin at the same time. McMahon decided to vacate the WWF Championship and award it based on a match between The Undertaker and Kane, in which Austin was the guest referee on Judgment Day: In Your House. Austin refused to count for either man and attacked both towards the end of the match. McMahon later fired him, although Austin got revenge by kidnapping McMahon and dragging him to the middle of the ring at "gunpoint", which ended up being a toy gun with a scroll that read "Bang! 3:16." During that segment, McMahon also learned that Austin was later re-signed by his son, Shane McMahon. In the semifinals of the Survivor Series tournament to crown a new WWF Champion, Austin lost to Mankind after Shane double-crossed Austin. The next night on Raw, Judge Mills Lane ruled that The Rock had to defend his newly won WWF Championship against Austin that night, as stipulated in the new contract Austin had signed two weeks earlier with Shane. The Undertaker interfered and hit Austin with a shovel, earning Austin a disqualification victory, though The Rock remained champion. At Rock Bottom: In Your House, Austin defeated The Undertaker in a Buried Alive match after Kane performed a Tombstone Piledriver on The Undertaker into the grave. With this victory, Austin qualified for the 1999 Royal Rumble.
Austin's next chance to exact revenge on Mr. McMahon came during the Royal Rumble match. On Raw, McMahon drew Austin's entry number with the intention of screwing him over. Austin drew entry number one, while McMahon drew number two thanks to Commissioner Shawn Michaels. During the Royal Rumble match, Austin followed McMahon out of the ring and into the backstage area, only to be ambushed by members of The Corporation, and an injured Austin was taken to the hospital. Austin however returned in an ambulance and re-entered the match, delivering a Stone Cold Stunner to Big Boss Man and eliminating him. With the match down to Austin and McMahon, The Rock came down to the ring to distract Austin, who was eliminated by McMahon, winning the Royal Rumble.
McMahon turned down the number-one contender spot, and Michaels promptly awarded Austin the championship shot the next night on Raw. At St. Valentine's Day Massacre, Austin faced McMahon in a steel cage match, with the championship opportunity at WrestleMania XV at stake. During the match, Paul Wight made his debut, coming from under the ring and attacking Austin, but Wight's attack propelled Austin into the side of the cage forcing the cage to give way and dropping Austin to the floor first, making him the victor. The week before WrestleMania, Austin interrupted The Rock, Vince, and Shane McMahon's interview segment by driving a beer truck to the ring and using a hose to spray the trio with beer. Austin defeated The Rock at WrestleMania XV to win his third WWF Championship. Austin faced The Rock in a rematch at Backlash, in which Shane was the referee. During the match, Vince approached the ring, only to hand Austin back his Smoking Skull championship belt and take Shane out of the proceedings. Austin won the match when another referee made the count. Austin would lose the championship to The Undertaker at Over the Edge. Due to events revolving around Vince, Stephanie and Linda McMahon made Austin the chief executive officer (CEO) of the company as part of the storyline. Vince and Shane challenged Austin to a handicap ladder match at King of the Ring with the title of CEO on the line, which the duo of father and son won. The next night on Raw, Austin challenged and defeated The Undertaker to win his fourth WWF Championship. The two would compete in a "First Blood" match at Fully Loaded, with the stipulation that if Austin lost he would never compete for the WWF Championship again, but if Austin won Vince would depart the company; Austin won after interference from X-Pac.
Championship reigns and The Alliance (1999–2001)
Austin held on to the WWF Championship until SummerSlam when he lost it to Mankind in a triple threat match also featuring Triple H. Austin would get his rematch at No Mercy against Triple H, but he lost after The Rock accidentally struck him with a sledgehammer shot meant for Triple H. The three were advertised for a triple-threat match at Survivor Series, where Austin was run down by a car. The segment was to write him off television, with the neck injury suffered two years prior posing a real threat of retirement, and was advised to undergo surgery. Austin would later describe this as "the worst storyline I was ever involved in".
In April 2000, Austin appeared at Backlash, attacking Triple H and Vince McMahon to help The Rock reclaim the WWF Championship. After Austin's return at Unforgiven in September, Commissioner Mick Foley led an investigation to find out who ran Austin over, with the culprit revealed to be Rikishi. At No Mercy, Austin faced Rikishi in a No Holds Barred match, during which Austin attempted to run down in a truck Rikishi, but was prevented from doing so by officials, and the match was deemed a no contest; Austin was subsequently arrested. During a handicap match against Rikishi and Kurt Angle, Triple H came down with the apparent intention of teaming with Austin, only to hit Austin with a sledgehammer and reveal he had instructed Rikishi to run him over. At Survivor Series, Triple H aimed to run Austin down again during their match but his plot failed when Austin lifted Triple H's car with a forklift, then let it drop 20 feet. Austin won his third Royal Rumble in January 2001, last eliminating Kane. His rivalry against Triple H ended at No Way Out in a Three Stages of Hell match, with Triple H defeating Austin two falls to one.
With The Rock defeating Angle for the WWF Championship at No Way Out, Austin was again set to face him at WrestleMania. In the weeks leading up to WrestleMania, animosity grew between Austin and The Rock, stemming from Austin's wife, Debra, being assigned to be The Rock's manager by Mr. McMahon. The match at WrestleMania X-Seven was made a no disqualification match. During the match, McMahon came to the ring, preventing The Rock from pinning Austin on two separate occasions and giving Austin a steel chair. Austin then hit The Rock several times with the chair before pinning him to win the WWF Championship for the fifth time. After the match, Austin shook hands with McMahon, turning heel for the first time since 1997. During a steel cage match with The Rock in a rematch for the WWF Championship the following night on Raw, Triple H came down to the ring with a sledgehammer. After teasing siding with The Rock, Triple H instead aligned himself with Austin and McMahon, attacking The Rock and put him out of action. Austin further cemented his heel turn the following Thursday on SmackDown!, when, during an interview with Jim Ross about his actions at WrestleMania, he thought Ross was denouncing their friendship and then assaulted Ross. Austin and Triple H became a team known as The Two-Man Power Trip. Austin altered his character considerably over the next few months by becoming a whiny, temperamental prima donna who complained incessantly when he felt he was not getting respect. He also developed an infatuation with McMahon, going to great lengths to impress him, even going so far as to hug him and bring him presents.
Austin and Triple H ran roughshod over all their opponents, until coming up against The Undertaker and Kane. After defeating them for the WWF Tag Team Championship at Backlash, they held the tag team titles, the WWF Championship (Austin) and the Intercontinental Championship (Triple H) all at once. On the May 21 episode of Raw, Austin and Triple H defended their tag team championship against Chris Jericho and Chris Benoit; during the match, Triple H tore his quadriceps, and the team lost the match and the tag team championship in a highly acclaimed bout, with Jim Ross saying the quartet created "magic", while wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer awarded the match four-and-a-three-quarter stars out of a possible five in his Wrestling Observer Newsletter. Austin officially broke up The Power Trip on that week's SmackDown!, criticizing Triple H for his injury and for hitting him with the sledgehammer. He continued to align himself with McMahon and began feuding with Jericho and Benoit by himself, leading to a triple-threat match at King of the Ring; despite interference from the debuting Booker T, Austin retained the championship.
Meanwhile, the purchase of WCW by Vince McMahon began to bear fruit as The Invasion began. Invading WCW wrestlers formed an alliance with a group of ECW wrestlers, with the group led by Shane and Stephanie McMahon. Vince called Austin out and demanded that he bring "the old Stone Cold" back so he could effectively captain a team of WWF wrestlers in a ten-man tag team match at the upcoming InVasion PPV in July. Austin initially refused, but on the following episode of Raw he returned to his old ways and hit Stunners on every member of the Alliance, turning face once again. At InVasion, Austin captained the WWF team consisting of himself, Angle, Jericho, and The Undertaker and Kane against the team of WCW's Booker T and Diamond Dallas Page and ECW's Rhyno and The Dudley Boyz. Austin turned heel once again by hitting a Stunner on Angle and helping Team WCW/ECW win. Austin subsequently joined the Alliance as their leader.
Austin lost the WWF Championship to Angle at Unforgiven by submitting to the ankle lock, ending Austin's reign at 175 days, the longest reign since 1996. He would regain the title on the October 8 episode of Raw when WWF Commissioner William Regal betrayed Angle and joined the Alliance. Austin then began feuding with Alliance member Rob Van Dam, who was the only member of the Alliance to be cheered by the fans despite the villainous tactics of the group. Austin faced Angle and Van Dam at No Mercy later that month and won by pinning Van Dam. For Survivor Series, a "winner takes all" 10-man tag team match was announced; Austin captained a team consisting Angle, Shane McMahon, Van Dam, and Booker T, against Team WWF; captained by The Rock, the team also included Jericho, Kane, The Undertaker and Big Show. At Survivor Series, Angle sided with the WWF, helping The Rock to hit the Rock Bottom and pin Austin to win the match, marking the end of the Invasion storyline.
The following night, Vince McMahon decided he was going to strip Austin of the championship and reward it to Angle, before Ric Flair returned and announced he was now half-owner of the company. Austin returned moments after this announcement and attacked Angle and McMahon for their actions. He was then handed his championship belt by Flair and celebrated with him in the ring, turning him face once again. At the Vengeance PPV, a tournament was held to unify the WWF Championship and the WCW World Heavyweight Championship, held by The Rock; also involving Angle and Jericho. Austin would defeat Angle, before losing the unification match to Jericho following interference by McMahon and Booker T.
Final feuds, walkout, and retirement (2002–2003)
In the 2002 Royal Rumble on January 20, Austin entered at number nineteen and lasted until the final four, but was eliminated by Kurt Angle. On the January 28 episode of Raw, he defeated Angle to earn a shot at Chris Jericho's Undisputed WWF Championship at No Way Out. In the build-up to No Way Out, McMahon had signed the New World Order (nWo), who immediately began a feud with Austin. Austin refused a beer gift from the nWo, and they cost him his match against Jericho later that night. Problems were beginning to surface backstage, however, as Austin was unhappy regarding Hulk Hogan's return to the WWF. He was reported as refusing to lose to Hogan in a proposed match at WrestleMania X8, while Hogan reportedly told McMahon the same regarding losing to Austin. In recent years, Austin claimed he didn't want the match as he didn't want to wrestle at a slower pace, and that he "didn't think we could deliver." Consequently, Austin defeated Scott Hall at WrestleMania.
Austin no-showed the Raw after WrestleMania and took a week-long break without the company's consent, citing exhaustion. McMahon claimed his actions caused fury among fans who had paid to see him that night. Austin returned on the April 1 episode of Raw, the first of the new "brand extension" era. The show was centered on which show he would sign with, and he ultimately chose Raw. Austin entered a feud with The Undertaker that resulted in a number-one contender's match for the Undisputed WWF Championship at Backlash, which Austin lost despite having his foot on the rope when he was pinned. He would later be betrayed by Big Show, who went on to rejoin the nWo and Ric Flair. Austin then defeated Big Show and Flair in a handicap match at Judgment Day. In a May 2002 interview on WWE's Internet program, Byte This!, Austin stunned the company and fans by launching a verbal attack on the direction the company was heading in and slated the creative team for not using him the way he felt they previously did. The WWE rehired Eddie Guerrero for Austin to feud with, while also prepping Austin for a feud with Brock Lesnar. However, Austin balked at the proposition that he lose a King of the Ring qualifying match on Raw to Lesnar, and ultimately walked out of the company. Austin later explained that he thought hot-shotting a rookie made Austin look weak, and airing the match on free television with no build-up did not give Lesnar a proper stage for such a big win over a star of Austin's magnitude. Further fanning the flames amongst Austin's growing number of detractors was a well-publicized domestic dispute incident between Austin and his wife Debra (see below).
After Austin again no-showed the June 10 episode of Raw, his storylines were dropped. Austin walked out again, publicly stating he felt bad storylines were presented to him by the creative team. This time his departure was for good. McMahon, along with longtime Austin supporter and real-life friend Jim Ross, buried Austin on WWE programming, referring to him as "taking his ball and going home" because he was not getting his way, whilst also explaining to the fans that neither he nor Ross was able to persuade Austin to change his mind. McMahon insisted that Austin owed an apology to all the fans across the world, especially those who paid solely to see him that night. McMahon toasted to Austin's career with a beer thanking him for all his hard work nonetheless. The same night, Austin's entrance theme was played during an in-ring segment by Flair, but it transitioned to Guerrero's theme and he entered the arena. The Rock also made an appearance on Raw that night, despite being drafted to SmackDown!, and announced his frustrations towards Austin and threw a can of beer at McMahon.
For the remainder of 2002, Austin kept a low profile and did not make any public appearances. It was reported, however, by the end of the year, Austin and McMahon met and resolved their differences. He then agreed to return to the company in early 2003. In an interview with WWE Raw Magazine, he announced deep regret over the situation that led to his departure and how he had left, and deeper regret over inaccurate speculation regarding his alleged grudges held against other WWE wrestlers, claiming he had no problem with Hall rejoining the company. However, he admitted he still held strong reservations about his singles match with Hall at WrestleMania only lasting seven minutes and felt the build-up to the match did not live up to the expectations of his fans or Hall's and was angered by speculation suggesting he disagreed with Kevin Nash re-joining the company, insisting he and Nash have always been good friends. He, however, maintained his displeasure with the storylines and creative changes the WWE had imposed around the time of his departure. In an interview with Vince McMahon on his podcast in 2014, Austin revealed for the first time that McMahon had fined him $650,000 upon his return, but he was able to lower the amount to $250,000.
Austin confessed he had a major rift with Triple H's role in the company upon his return in 2002 but insisted as of 2003 they resolved their issues. Also, he claimed a brief dispute with The Rock was resolved quickly upon his return, and that none of his disputes with the talent roster continued or played the major part in his departure. In February, Austin returned at No Way Out by defeating Eric Bischoff. Austin would wrestle only one match between then and WrestleMania, in another short match against Bischoff on Raw. He entered a feud with The Rock, who returned about the same time as a smug, Hollywood sell-out heel. The Rock was offended that the WWE fans voted for Austin in a WWE Magazine poll to determine the 'Superstar of the Decade'. He expressed his frustration at having never defeated Austin at WrestleMania, and challenged Austin to a match at WrestleMania XIX. Austin was then defeated by The Rock at WrestleMania XIX, in Austin's final match.
On-screen authority figure (2003–2004)
The following month, Linda McMahon brought Austin back to be the co-general manager of Raw, a role he played for the remainder of the year, often getting into physical altercations with talent and personnel. Austin and Bischoff continued to feud over control of the brand. On the July 21 episode of Raw, McMahon informed Austin he could not get physical with anyone unless provoked. At Survivor Series, Austin's hand-picked team of Booker T, Bubba Ray Dudley, D-Von Dudley, Rob Van Dam and Shawn Michaels faced Bischoff's team of Chris Jericho, Christian, Mark Henry, Randy Orton and Scott Steiner in a 5-on-5 Survivor Series elimination match. Austin's team lost after Batista interfered on behalf of Bischoff. As a result, Austin was "fired" from his position as co-general manager. Mick Foley took over Austin's former role and began petitioning to have Austin re-instated. Austin returned before the end of 2003, appearing at Tribute to the Troops. He posed as Santa Claus before delivering a "Stone Cold Stunner" to Mr. McMahon and John Cena. Austin returned to Raw on December 29 as its "Sheriff", giving a Stone Cold Stunner to Bischoff and rehiring Michaels, who had just been "fired" by Bischoff. Austin appeared on-and-off as 2004 began, culminating in him being the special guest referee for the Brock Lesnar vs. Goldberg match at WrestleMania XX.
Part time appearances, WWE Hall of Fame and Tough Enough (2005–2011)
On April 3, 2005, Austin made his first appearance on WWE programming in a year at WrestleMania 21 when he appeared with Roddy Piper on Piper's Pit. They were interrupted by Carlito, who received a Stone Cold Stunner. The segment ended with Austin and Piper celebrating with beer until Austin gave Piper a Stone Cold Stunner. Austin was involved in the concluding segment at ECW One Night Stand in which he had a beer bash with the ECW locker room and brawled with the anti-ECW invaders, led by Bischoff. He returned at Raw Homecoming, delivering Stone Cold Stunners to Vince, Shane, Stephanie, and Linda McMahon. An angle including Jim Ross being fired led to a match in which Austin agreed to face Jonathan Coachman at Taboo Tuesday, with the stipulation of Ross regaining his announcing job had Austin won and Austin losing his job had he lost. Austin hurt his back before the match and could not wrestle unless he was heavily medicated, so the match was cancelled. To explain away his failure to appear at Taboo Tuesday, Vince McMahon said on Raw that Austin had been involved in an accident, thus preventing him from competing. Batista substituted for Austin, defeating Coachman along with Vader and Goldust.
He returned to WWE to face John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) in a beer-drinking contest at March 18, 2006, episode of Saturday Night's Main Event XXXII. Austin inducted Bret Hart into the WWE Hall of Fame on April 1, 2006.
Austin returned to WWE programming in March 2007, partially to promote his starring role in the release of WWE Films' production The Condemned. On March 31, he inducted Jim Ross into the Hall of Fame. At WrestleMania 23, Austin was the special guest referee for the match between Bobby Lashley and Umaga. If Lashley lost, his manager Donald Trump's head would be shaved, and if Umaga lost, his manager Vince McMahon's head would be shaved. During the match, Austin delivered Stone Cold Stunners to Umaga, Vince McMahon, Shane McMahon, and Trump. Lashley won the match; Trump, Austin, and Lashley then shaved McMahon's head. Austin ended the show by hitting the Stone Cold Stunner on both Vince and Trump. He then appeared in a video on the June 11 episode of Raw as part of "Mr. McMahon's Appreciation Night", where he shared his thoughts on his past feuds with McMahon. Austin appeared on the August 18 episode of Saturday Night's Main Event, as a possible illegitimate child of McMahon. He hit McMahon and Coachman with Stone Cold Stunners before leaving. He appeared at SummerSlam to aid Matt Hardy in battling MVP in a beer-drinking contest. The match ended in a no-contest after Austin handed a beer to MVP and gave him the Stone Cold Stunner. Austin made another appearance at Cyber Sunday, where he guest refereed a World Heavyweight Championship match between Batista and The Undertaker. On the November 5 episode of Raw, Austin made an appearance to confront Santino Marella for criticizing The Condemned. The argument ended as Marella received a Stone Cold Stunner from Austin, who then walked backstage only to return with a Budweiser beer truck to hose down Marella and his valet Maria with beer. Austin appeared on the Raw 15th Anniversary special, attacking Vince McMahon.
On October 26, 2008, at Cyber Sunday, Austin was the special guest referee during a match between Batista and Chris Jericho for the World Heavyweight Championship. On January 12, 2009, on Raw, Austin was announced to be the first member of the Hall of Fame class of 2009. He was inducted by his long-term on-screen rival Vince McMahon, who referred to Austin as "the greatest WWE Superstar of all time". During the induction, Austin said he was officially closing the door on his wrestling career and starting a new chapter in his life. Austin appeared as the guest host of Raw on March 15, 2010, moderating a contract signing between McMahon and Bret Hart for their match at WrestleMania XXVI.
In early 2011, Austin was announced as the head trainer and host for the revival of Tough Enough. On the March 7 episode of Raw, Austin interrupted the contract signing of the special guest referee for the Michael Cole and Jerry Lawler match at WrestleMania XXVII, originally scheduled to be JBL; Austin attacked JBL and signed the contract instead. Although Lawler won by submission, the Anonymous Raw General Manager reversed the decision and disqualified Lawler, claiming that Austin had "overstepped his authority." Austin appeared on Raw the following night with the cast from Tough Enough, while also getting into an altercation with The Miz and Alex Riley. On the June 6 episode of Raw, Austin appeared to declare Andy Leavine as the winner of Tough Enough. He also served as the special guest referee in the evening's tag team main event of John Cena and Alex Riley against The Miz and R-Truth, hitting Miz with a Stone Cold Stunner and aiding Cena. However, the Anonymous Raw General Manager awarding the match to The Miz and R-Truth via disqualification. Austin did not take kindly to his decision being overturned and gave Cole a Stone Cold Stunner, which was followed with an Attitude Adjustment by Cena. Austin and Cena closed the show with a beer bash. Austin later appeared as the special guest General Manager on the "WWE All-Stars" episode of Raw, during which he destroyed the Anonymous Raw General Manager's laptop by running over it with his ATV.
Sporadic Appearances (2012–present)
In July 2012, Austin was announced as the cover star of the special edition of WWE '13. He then began a brief, verbal feud with fellow cover star CM Punk in the months leading to release.
Austin appeared at WrestleMania XXX on April 6, 2014, with Hulk Hogan and The Rock in the opening segment. Austin made an appearance on the October 19, 2015 episode of Raw, introducing The Undertaker and promoting the WrestleMania 32 event. Austin again appeared on Raw the following week, where he promoted the WWE 2K16 video game in a backstage segment.
In 2014, Steve Austin began hosting a special edition of his podcast on the WWE Network, in 2019 he later began hosting The Broken Skull Sessions.
At WrestleMania 32 on April 3, 2016, Austin (alongside Mick Foley and Shawn Michaels) confronted The League of Nations, with Austin delivering Stone Cold Stunners to Rusev and King Barrett. While Austin was celebrating with Michaels and Foley, The New Day tried to convince Austin to dance with them in celebration. While Austin reluctantly danced along at first, he soon hit Xavier Woods with a Stone Cold Stunner. During Raws 25th anniversary episode on January 22, 2018, Austin appeared and performed a Stone Cold Stunner on Shane and Vince McMahon.
On July 22, 2019, Austin appeared on the Raw Reunion episode and raised a toast alongside Triple H, Hulk Hogan, Ric Flair, and various other wrestlers from his era. On September 9, he made an appearance on Raw at Madison Square Garden for the contract signing between Seth Rollins and Braun Strowman. Having been interrupted by A.J. Styles, he hit Styles with a Stone Cold Stunner. On the March 16, 2020 episode of Raw, Austin made an appearance to promote "3:16 Day" as a holiday. He shared a beer with Raw commentator Byron Saxton before giving him a Stone Cold Stunner. He then shared a beer with Becky Lynch, Angelo Dawkins, and Montez Ford before giving Dawkins and Ford Stone Cold Stunners.
Other media
Acting and hosting
Austin had guest roles on Celebrity Deathmatch and Seasons 4 and 5 of CBS's Nash Bridges, where he played San Francisco Police Department Inspector Jake Cage. He has appeared on V.I.P and Dilbert. His motion picture debut was in a supporting role as Guard Dunham in the 2005 remake of The Longest Yard. Austin had his first starring film role, as Jack Conrad, a dangerous convict awaiting execution in a Salvadoran prison, who takes part in an illegal deathmatch game that is being broadcast to the public in the 2007 action film The Condemned. In 2010, Austin appeared in The Expendables as Dan Paine, the right-hand man for the primary antagonist of the film James Munroe, played by Eric Roberts, and bodyguard with Gary Daniels who plays The Brit. Shortly after Austin re-teamed with Eric Roberts and Gary Daniels in Hunt to Kill. It was his last American theatrical release film until 2013. Austin appeared as Hugo Panzer on television series Chuck. He has also starred in Damage, The Stranger, Tactical Force, Knockout, Recoil, Maximum Conviction, and The Package.
In April 2013, Austin started a weekly podcast named The Steve Austin Show which is family-friendly, while his second podcast The Steve Austin Show – Unleashed! is more adult-oriented. As of May 2015, the podcasts averaged 793,000 downloads a week and had nearly 200 million overall downloads. In February 2018, Austin announced that the "Unleashed" version of the podcast had been dropped and merged with the family-friendly version in order to appeal to more sponsors. The podcast has also transitioned to a live broadcast for the WWE Network (podcasted after a short exclusivity period) with monthly specials since 2014. In November 2019, Austin began an interview segment on the WWE Network called the Broken Skull Sessions, taking its name from the ranch owned by Austin. The premier episode featured The Undertaker.
Austin hosted the reality competition show Redneck Island on CMT, which began in June 2012 and concluded with its fifth season in April 2016. In July 2014, his reality competition show Steve Austin's Broken Skull Challenge premiered on CMT. The show entered into its fifth season in September 2017.
Video games
Stone Cold has appeared in almost all of the WWF/E video games from 1998's WWF War Zone onwards, with the only exceptions being WWE SmackDown vs. Raw, WWE Day of Reckoning and WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009. He also appears in WCW: The Main Event. Austin has also appeared as the cover athlete for several wrestling video games, like WWF War Zone and WWE 2K16.
Filmography
Film
Television
Personal life
Austin married his high school girlfriend Kathryn Burrhus on November 24, 1990. However, he later pursued a relationship with English wrestling manager Jeanie Clarke, with whom he was working. His marriage to Burrhus was annulled on August 7, 1992, and he married Clarke on December 18. They had two daughters, Stephanie (born 1992) and Cassidy (born 1996), before divorcing on May 10, 1999. Cassidy lives with Clarke in England, while Stephanie resides in Los Angeles. Austin also adopted Jade, Clarke's daughter with former boyfriend Chris Adams. Jade lives in the U.S. with her husband and son.
On September 13, 2000, Austin married wrestling manager Debra Marshall. On June 15, 2002, Marshall called the police to the couple's home and told officers that Austin had hit her on the head, back, and legs, and then stormed out of the house before police arrived. According to police reports, Marshall suffered a swollen cheek and eye and bruises to her back and shoulder. Austin called the house while officers were there and was told he was in trouble, but declined a request to return to the house or report to the police station. On August 14, he was arrested and charged with domestic abuse. He pleaded no contest on November 25, and was given a year's probation, a $1,000 fine, and ordered to carry out 80 hours of community service. In 2007, Marshall told Fox News that Austin had beaten her three times and that the incident was the result of roid rage. She also stated that WWE knew of the abuse, but worked to conceal the bruises on her face and kept her from revealing that Austin had hit her as it would cost the company millions of dollars. Austin responded to the incident in 2003 through WWE Raw Magazine, citing his regret over their relationship breaking down and stating his love for Marshall. He also ridiculed allegations that the incident was alcohol-related. He filed for divorce from Marshall on July 22, 2002, which was finalized on February 5, 2003.
In 2003, Austin denied allegations that he was an alcoholic, stating that wrestling fans had mistaken his character's excessive consumption of beer as a real-life trait of his and insisting that he drinks responsibly. On March 26, 2004, he was accused of assaulting his then-girlfriend Tess Broussard during a dispute at his home in San Antonio, Texas, according to a police report. Broussard claimed that Austin grabbed her and, after she began struggling, threw her to the ground. She landed on her hands and knees, and later told officers she had injured her right hand. She provided a written statement to police, who photographed her injuries. No arrests were made and no charges were filed in the case.
In 2007, the Wrestling Observer newsletter reported that he had legally changed his name to Steve Austin. In late 2009, he married his fourth wife, Kristin. They split their time between the Broken Skull Ranch 2.0 (Austin's ranch in Nevada) and a home in Marina Del Rey, California.
Professional wrestling style, persona and legacy
During his early years as a wrestler, Austin was a technical wrestler. However, after Owen Hart accidentally injured Austin's neck in 1997, Austin changed his style from technical to brawler. His most famous finishing move is the Stone Cold Stunner, and he credits Michael Hayes with introducing the move to him. Following his retirement, he gave permission to Kevin Owens to use the move as his own finisher, but both have downplayed comparisons between the two. During his time as The Ringmaster, he used the Million Dollar Dream as a finishing move since it was Ted DiBiase's finisher. During his time in WCW, Austin used the Stun Gun (a move innovated by Eddie Gilbert as the Hot Shot) and the Hollywood & Vine (a standing modified figure-four leglock) as his finishers.
Sporting a bald head and goatee, coupled with his ring attire which consisted of plain black trunks and boots, Austin relied solely on his personality to become popular. As "Stone Cold", Austin was portrayed on-screen as an anti-authority rebel who would consistently cuss and defy the company rules and guidelines of WWE Chairman Vince McMahon. One of Austin's taunts during the Attitude Era was to show the middle finger. To compliment his persona, Austin was the recipient of two additional nicknames, commentator and friend Jim Ross dubbed him "The Texas Rattlesnake" due to the character's "mannerisms, the motivation, the mindset, you can't trust this son of a bitch", while Austin later named himself "The Bionic Redneck" on account of the injuries he had suffered to his arms, neck and knees. Austin has said he is "eternally indebted" to Ross for helping his character become popular.
In August 2001, he began using his catchphrase "What?" to interrupt wrestlers who were trying to speak and to allow fan participation chants. Audiences at WWE shows have since widely used this chant during performer promos, and Austin has stated his regret at inventing the chant.
Austin's entrance theme was composed by Jim Johnston, who said that in composing the song, he looked upon Austin's persona as an "ass-kicker guy who did not enter a room with subtlety. He needed something that reflected that". Looking to capture the unpredictable nature of the character, Johnston thought of using the sounds of a car crash and smashing glass, and recalled that he instantly felt the theme fit the character and that "it felt like it had already been his theme for years". Austin says the song was inspired by Rage Against the Machine's song "Bulls on Parade". The theme song was revamped in 2000, with the rock band Disturbed recording the new version, used for the first time at the Unforgiven PPV event in September. Austin's entrance theme is regarded as one of the greatest of all time, and one which defined the Attitude Era, while Disturbed's version has been described as one of the 10 most metal entrance songs.
Sports Illustrated ranked him third on their top 101 greatest wrestlers of all-time list. He has been described as the most influential wrestler in Raw history, and the poster boy for the Attitude Era. Several former world champions have named Austin as part of their "Mount Rushmore" of wrestling, including The Rock, The Undertaker, Hulk Hogan, Ric Flair, and John Cena, and a 2012 poll conducted by WWE saw Austin picked second on a fan voted version of the concept. When Vince McMahon inducted Austin into the WWE Hall of Fame in 2009, he referred to Austin as "the greatest WWE superstar of all time."
Championships and accomplishments
Cauliflower Alley Club
Iron Mike Mazurki Award (2012)
Guinness World Records
World record: Most wins of the WWE Royal Rumble (3 times)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Feud of the Year (1998, 1999) vs. Vince McMahon
Match of the Year (1997) vs. Bret Hart in a submission match at WrestleMania 13
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (2001)
Most Popular Wrestler of the Year (1998)
Rookie of the Year (1990)
Wrestler of the Year (1998, 1999, 2001)
Ranked No. 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1998 and 1999
Ranked No. 19 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the PWI Years in 2003
Ranked No. 50 of the top 100 tag teams of the PWI Years with Brian Pillman in 2003
Stanley Weston Award (2019)
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2016
Texas Wrestling Federation
TWA Tag Team Championsip (1 time) – with Rod Price
World Championship Wrestling
WCW World Television Championship (2 times)
WCW United States Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
WCW World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Brian Pillman
NWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Brian Pillman
World Wrestling Federation/World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE
WWF Championship (6 times)
WWF Intercontinental Championship (2 times)
WWF Tag Team Championship (4 times) – with Shawn Michaels (1), Dude Love (1), The Undertaker (1), and Triple H (1)
Million Dollar Championship (1 time)
King of the Ring (1996)
Royal Rumble (1997, 1998, 2001)
Undisputed WWF Championship #1 Contenders Tournament (2002)
Fifth Triple Crown Champion
Slammy Award (2 times)
Freedom of Speech (1997)
Best Original WWE Network Show – (2015)
WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2009)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Box Office Draw (1998, 1999)
Best Brawler (2001)
Best Gimmick (1997, 1998)
Best Heel (1996)
Best on Interviews (1996–1998, 2001)
Best Non-Wrestler (2003)
Feud of the Year (1997)
Feud of the Year (1998, 1999)
Match of the Year (1997)
Most Charismatic (1997, 1998)
Rookie of the Year (1990)
Tag Team of the Year (1993)
Worst Worked Match of the Year (1991)
Wrestler of the Year (1998)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 2000)
References
Bibliography
External links
The Steve Austin Show on PodcastOne
1964 births
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American agnostics
American male film actors
American male professional wrestlers
American male television actors
American men podcasters
American people convicted of assault
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Swedish descent
American podcasters
American sportspeople convicted of crimes
American television hosts
Articles containing video clips
Living people
Male actors from Austin, Texas
Male actors from California
Male actors from Los Angeles
Male actors from San Antonio
Male actors from Texas
Million Dollar Champions
North Texas Mean Green football players
NWA/WCW World Television Champions
NWA/WCW/WWE United States Heavyweight Champions
People from Edna, Texas
People from McMullen County, Texas
People from Victoria, Texas
Professional wrestlers from California
Professional wrestlers from Texas
Professional wrestling authority figures
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
Professional wrestling podcasters
Sportspeople from Austin, Texas
Sportspeople from Los Angeles
Sportspeople from San Antonio
The Dangerous Alliance members
The Million Dollar Corporation members
The Stud Stable members
University of North Texas alumni
WWE Champions
WWE Hall of Fame inductees
WWF/WWE Intercontinental Champions
WWF/WWE King Crown's Champions/King of the Ring winners
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356171
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penrith%2C%20New%20South%20Wales
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Penrith, New South Wales
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Penrith is a city in New South Wales, Australia, located in Greater Western Sydney, 55 kilometres (31 mi) west of the Sydney central business district on the banks of the Nepean River, on the outskirts of the Cumberland Plain. Its elevation is 32 metres (105 ft).
Penrith is on Dharug Aboriginal Country and then is the administrative centre of the local government area of the City of Penrith.
The Geographical Names Board of New South Wales acknowledges Penrith as one of only four cities within the Greater Sydney metropolitan area.
History
Indigenous settlement
Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, the Penrith area was home to the Mulgoa tribe of the Darug people. They lived in makeshift huts called gunyahs, hunted native animals such as kangaroos, fished in the Nepean River, and gathered local fruits and vegetables such as yams. They lived under an elaborate system of law which had its origins in the Dreamtime. Most of the Mulgoa were killed by smallpox or galgala shortly after the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788. Early British explorers such as Watkin Tench described them as friendly, saying, "they bade us adieu, in unabated friendship and good humour".
European exploration
The recorded history of Penrith began on 26 June 1789. Eighteen months after the landing of the First Fleet, an exploring party led by Captain Watkin Tench set out to further discoveries made by Governor Arthur Phillip earlier in the month. In the daylight hours of 27 June, Tench and his party discovered the broad expanse of the Nepean River. Tench's party became the first Europeans to see the site of what is now the City of Penrith. Tench later wrote ‘we found ourselves on the banks of a river, nearly as broad as the Thames at Putney and apparently of great depth’. Phillip later named the river after Evan Nepean, the under-secretary of state in the Home Office, who had been largely responsible for the organisation of the First Fleet. From this point, European settlement began in earnest, firstly on the Hawkesbury River, and later southward up the Nepean.
European settlement
Governor Phillip Gidley King began granting land in the area to settlers in 1804 with Captain Daniel Woodriff's on the banks of the river the first land grant in the area. The first government building in the district was the military depot built (at the present Penrith police station) by William Cox, in mid-1815 near the new Road (Great Western Road) on unassigned Crown land, set well back from the river. It represented the formalisation of law and order in the district. Its placement seems to have been a practical decision by Cox, placing it on flood-free Crown land on the new road to Parramatta, just east of Woodriff's Rodley Farm. Governor Lachlan Macquarie paid Cox £200 for ‘erecting a Depot for Provisions, Guard House, erecting necessary Enclosures for cattle and Garden Ground, Frame for a Well … on the new near Emu Ford’. At this time, Emu Ford was one of the few locality names that would indicate the depot's position.
In 1816 Cox mentioned the lockup at ‘Penryhn’, among a list of expenses. There appears little doubt that he was referring to the depot that was later referred to as Penrith. The name for the new depot, Penrhyn, may have simply been misinterpreted by others. Penrhyn was possibly named after the First Fleet ship that carried women convicts, the Lady Penrhyn. There is no historical evidence to prove Macquarie's hand in naming the depot, especially considering he often endowed and recorded benefactors with that favour. Furthermore, Macquarie would have ensured that a plan of the town would have been drawn up. No documentary evidence has shed any light on Macquarie's reasoning for the placement of this depot and its connection with his vision for a township at Castlereagh.
What is clear is that the origin of the name, Penrith is steeped in mystery. Penrith was possibly named after Penrith in Cumbria by someone who knew the old town and who noted geographical similarities. By 1819, the name Penrith was in use with its first reference in the Sydney Gazette on 8 December 1821 appointing John Proctor as keeper of the new gaol and court house.
The lockup at Penrith placed government law and order in the centre of the Evan district. This group of buildings became the point of contact for local administration for anything ranging from issuing publican's licences, holding inquests and church services. Although a magistrate had been appointed to Castlereagh in 1811, the Penrith lockup increased in importance with its promotion to a court house in 1817. A bench of magistrates was appointed: Sir John Jamison, the Reverend Henry Fulton, John McHenry and a military officer from the regiment stationed there. In 1814, William Cox constructed a road across the Blue Mountains which passed through Woodriff's land at Penrith. Initial settlement in the area was unplanned but substantial enough for a courthouse to be established in 1817.
The post office was established in 1828, the Anglican church, St Stephens, was opened and consecrated 16 July 1839 followed by the Catholic Church, St Nicholas of Myra, in 1850. Two other prominent Penrith pioneers were Irish-born Thomas Jamison (1752/53-1811), a member of the First Fleet and surgeon-general of New South Wales (after whom Jamisontown is named), and his son, the landowner, physician and constitutional reformer Sir John Jamison (1776–1844). In 1824, Sir John erected the colony's finest Georgian mansion, Regentville House, near Penrith, on a ridge overlooking the Nepean River. Sir John established an impressive agricultural estate at Regentville and became a Member of the New South Wales Legislative Council. His grave can be seen in St Stephen's graveyard. Regentville House burned down in 1868 but most of its stonework was salvaged and used for building projects in and around Penrith.
The first bridge, financed by local business James Tobias (Toby) Ryan was opened over the Nepean in 1856 and was washed away the following year in a flood. The railway line was extended to Penrith in 1863, a school was established in 1865 and in 1871 the area became a municipality. It officially became a city in 1959.
Commercial area
Penrith is one of the major commercial centres in Greater Western Sydney. The suburb contains two shopping centres.
Westfield Penrith, (formerly Penrith Plaza) is the largest shopping centre in the suburb, located within a main commercial centre.
Nepean Village (formerly Nepean Square) is a single level shopping centre located in Penrith.
Transport
Penrith railway station is a major railway station on the North Shore & Western Line of the Sydney Trains network. It has frequent services to and from the City and is also a stop on the intercity Blue Mountains Line.
Penrith railway station is served by a bus interchange and by the Nightride Bus route 70.
Penrith can be accessed from St. Marys and Mount Druitt via the Great Western Highway. Access from further east is best obtained by the M4 Western Motorway using either The Northern Road or Mulgoa Road exits. If travelling east from the Blue Mountains, access is best obtained by the Great Western Highway.
Access from the south can be obtained by The Northern Road and Mulgoa Road, north from Castlereagh road or Richmond road, or from north and south via Westlink M7 and the M4 Western Motorway.
The NSW Government announced funding for the construction of the M9 in the 2014 state budget to connect Camden, Penrith and Windsor. The proposed motorway will start from the M5 motorway and run west of the current M7 motorway.
Education
Penrith Public School and Penrith High School are two public schools in High Street.Jamison High School is in South Penrith. St Nicholas of Myra is a Catholic primary school, which is part of Catholic Education, Diocese of Parramatta, is located in Higgins Street.
The Penrith campus of Nepean College of TAFE is located in the centre of town on Henry Street. The Penrith campus of the University of Western Sydney is located in nearby Werrington. The University of Sydney has a campus near Nepean Hospital in Kingswood, for research into the basic biomedical sciences and educating medical students at the hospital.
Landmarks and tourist attractions
Heritage listings
Penrith has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
34-40 Borec Road: Craithes House
26 Coombes Drive: Torin Building
Great Western railway: Penrith railway station, Sydney
Nepean River, Great Western Highway: Victoria Bridge (Penrith)
Off Bruce Neale Dr, Steel Trusses 1.3 km past station: Emu Plains Underbridge
1 Museum Drive: Penrith Museum of Fire, including the following:
Fire and Rescue NSW Heritage Fleet
NSW Fire Brigades No 10 Vehicle Number Plates
1869 Shand Mason 7 inch Manual Fire Engine
1891 Shand Mason Fire Engine
1898 Shand Mason Curricle Ladders
1909 Edward Smith Headquarters Switchboard
1929 Ahrens Fox PS2 Fire Engine
1939 Dennis Big 6 Fire Engine
1942 Ford 21W Fire Brigade Mobile Canteen
Other items of interest include:
Nepean Belle, an old-world style paddlewheeler located on the Nepean River at Penrith.
St Stephen's Church (1839), in High Street, and its historic graveyard, is heritage-listed
Penrith has a campus of the University of Western Sydney
Sydney International Regatta Centre, which was the location for the rowing competitions for the 2000 Olympic Games
Panthers World of Entertainment
Penrith Sake Brewery
Nepean River
Head of the River, which takes place at the regatta centre
Red Cow Hotel, Station Street, is Penrith's oldest standing hotel
Thornton Hall, Mountain View Crescent, is heritage-listed
Nepean Park, Castlereagh Road, is heritage-listed
Culture
Arts
The Joan Sutherland Performing Arts Complex is in High Street next to the Council Chambers. Named after opera singer Joan Sutherland, the building was designed by architect Philip Cox and opened in 1990. It incorporates the Penrith Conservatorium of Music and the Q Theatre (Penrith), which had been operating in Station Street for 30 years before moving to the complex in 2006.
Sport and recreation
Penrith Stadium is the home of the Penrith Panthers NRL team. Penrith's Junior Rugby League competition is the largest in the world, which also incorporates teams from the Blue Mountains, Blacktown and Windsor/Richmond areas.
Penrith Stadium was also home to the Penrith Nepean United FC soccer club. The team had a 2–1 win against Sydney FC in a home game friendly match in front of 5000 fans on 17 August 2007.
There are also many other sporting associations, including cricket clubs, AFL clubs, Penrith City Outlaws gridiron team, Panthers Triathlon club, Penrith Emus Rugby, swimming, and soccer clubs.
Just west of Cranebrook is Penrith Lakes, a system of flooded quarries that are now recreational lakes. One of these lakes hosted the rowing events of the Sydney 2000 Olympics. This facility is rated as a Level One course which can be used for international events. The course itself is fully buoyed and can be modified to accommodate swimming and kayaking events.
North of the rowing lake is the Penrith Whitewater Stadium, the only pump-powered and artificial whitewater slalom course in the Southern Hemisphere. It was built for the Sydney 2000 Olympics, and it continues to host international competitions on a regular basis.
Penrith is home to the Elite Fight Gym. A mixed martial arts training facility established by UFC fighter James Te-Huna. In 2013, James te Huna left EFG to establish a rival MMA centre in St Marys named Bee Stingz (located at Valley Fitness).
Media
Penrith is home to three local newspapers: The Western Weekender, Nepean News, and Penrith Press, the latter of which no longer produces a print edition. It is also home to local radio station Vintage FM 87.6 (40's, 50's & 60's Music). The current FM radio station "the edge" 96.1 FM evolved from the former (original) 2KA station founded by Frank Kelly. In 2001 the Penrith Museum of Printing opened. Its collection represents the history of Australian letterpress printing.
Geography
Penrith sits on the western edge of the Cumberland Plain, a fairly flat area of Western Sydney, extending to Windsor in the north, Parramatta in the east and Thirlmere in the south. The Nepean River forms the western boundary of the suburb and beyond that, dominating the western skyline, are the Blue Mountains. There is a difference of opinion between Penrith City Council and the Geographical Names Board of New South Wales as to the boundaries of Penrith the suburb. The Board includes in its official description the area of Kingswood Park, Lemongrove and North Penrith, which the Council considers separate suburbs.
Climate
Penrith has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa) with long, hot summers, mild to cool short winters with cold nights, and pleasant spring and autumn. The daytime temperatures are generally a few degrees warmer than Sydney (Observatory Hill), especially during spring and summer, when the difference in temperature between Penrith and the Sydney area can be quite pronounced. Night-time temperatures are a few degrees cooler than Sydney on most nights of the year. In extreme cases, there could be a temperature differential of 10 degrees Celsius in summer, owing to sea breezes, which affect coastal areas much more than areas further from the ocean and do not usually penetrate as far inland as Penrith. Frost occasionally occurs on some winter mornings. The average summer temperature range is 17.9 °C (64.2 °F) to 29.8 °C (85.6 °F) and in the winter 6.2 °C (43.2 °F) to 18.6 °C (65.5 °F).
Mean yearly rainfall in Penrith is 719.2mm, which is significantly less than recorded closer to the coast, (Sydney Observatory Hill's mean yearly rainfall is 1212.2mm), as coastal showers do not penetrate inland. The highest recorded temperature was 48.9 °C (120.02 °F) on 4 January 2020 (Penrith was also the hottest place on earth that day). The lowest recorded temperature was -1.4 °C (29.5 °F) on 12 July 2002. Penrith's hot temperatures are exacerbated by a combination of its inland location, urban heat island effect (i.e. density of housing and lack of trees) and its position on the footsteps of the Blue Mountains, which trap hot air. Penrith's dry, sunny winters are owed to the Great Dividing Range blocking westerly cold fronts, which turn to foehn winds on the range's leeward side (that includes all of the Sydney metropolitan area).
Population
Demographics
In the 2016 census, Penrith recorded a population of 13,295 people. Of these:
Age distribution: The median age was 37 years (compared to the national median of 38). Children aged under 15 years made up 16.4% of the population (national average is 18.7%) and people aged 65 years and over made up 17.5% of the population (national average is 15.8%).
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 5.0% of the population of Penrith.
Ethnic diversity : 68.2% of people were born in Australia, compared to the national average of 66.7%; the next most common countries of birth were England 3.8%, India 2.5%, New Zealand 1.9%, Philippines 1.7% and China 1.4%. 75.6% of people only spoke English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Mandarin 1.4%, Tagalog 1.0% and Arabic 0.9%.
Religion : The most common responses for religion were No Religion 26.1%, Catholic 24.9% and Anglican 18.1%.
Finances: The median household weekly income was $1,142, compared to the national median of $1,438. This difference is also reflected in real estate, with the median mortgage payment being $1,733 per month, compared to the national median of $1,755.
Housing: Nearly half (47.2%) of occupied private dwellings were separate houses, 28.5% were semi-detached (row or terrace houses, townhouses etc.) and 23.8% were flats, units or apartments.
Notable residents
Keiynan Lonsdale (b. 1991) Australian-Nigerian, Actor, dancer, singer-writer, model
Richie Benaud (1930-2015) cricketer and commentator
James Tobias (Toby) Ryan businessman, politician (Nepean Electorate)
Thomas Bent (1838–1909) Premier of Victoria 1904 to 1909, born in Penrith
Nathan Bracken (b. 1977) Australian cricketer
David Bradbury (b. 1976) former Federal Member of Lindsay, and former Mayor of Penrith
James Courtney, V8 Race car driver
Firass Dirani (b. 1984) TV actor
Jason Dundas (b. 1981) television presenter
Mick Fanning (b. 1981) surfing world champion 2007
Jessica Fox (b. 1994), French-born Australian slalom canoer, Olympic gold medallist, world championships bronze (gold medal at Pau France) (C-1)
Paige Hadley (b. 1992) netball player
Michael Hartley (b. 1993), Australian rules footballer
John Hastings (b. 1985) former Australian Test and ODI cricketer
Tony Jones (b. 1961) sports journalist based in Melbourne.
Ken Kearney (1924-2006) Dual international rugby player, Australian Test and St George premiership-winning captain-coach.
Simon Keen (b. 1987) Australian U19s cricketer
Jennifer Maiden (b. 1949) poet
Darren McErlain (b. 1974) Journalist, poet, teacher, voiceover artist Former host of AirFM Drive Penrith, now journalist with Australian Independent Radio News (AIR News)
Nic Naitanui (b. 1990) Australian rules footballer, born in Penrith
Dominic Purcell (b. 1970) English-born Australian actor, raised in Penrith. Best known for his role as Lincoln Burrows in 2000's Golden Globe award winning TV series Prison Break.
Grigor Taylor (b. 1943) 1970s TV actor
James Te-Huna UFC Fighter
Alan Whiticker (b. 1958) non-fiction author
Melissa Wu (b. 1992) Olympian – diver
The Holy Soul, rock and roll band
Mark Geyer (b. 1967) Australian rugby league footballer who played in the 1980s and 1990s, and a media identity.
Ben St Lawrence (b. 1981) Olympic long-distance runner
Kent "Smallzy" Small (b. 1984), radio presenter for Nova FM
David "DC" Love (b. 1985) hip hop recording artist
Brad Smith (b. 1994), football player for AFC Bournemouth
Ray Watson, (1922-2010), judge who reformed family law to create no-fault divorce.
Liam Zammit (b. 1981) cricketer
Yuri Tománek London based composer and electronic artist. Best known for the original score on the Netflix documentary series Cheer (TV series).
Numerous rugby league players including Nathan Cleary, Greg Alexander, Ben Alexander (1970–1992), Mark Carroll, John Cartwright, Craig Gower, Des Hasler, Michael Jennings, Luke Lewis, Luke Rooney and Tim Sheens.
Twin towns – sister cities
Penrith is twinned with:
Fujieda, Shizuoka, Japan, a Sister City since 1984.
Penrith, Cumbria, England, a Sister City since 1989.
Gangseo District, Seoul, Republic of Korea, a Friendship City since 1994.
Xicheng District, Beijing, China, under a Mutual Co-operation Agreement since 1998.
Kunshan, China, under a Mutual Co-operation Agreement since 2003.
Hakusan, Ishikawa, Japan, a Friendship City since 2005.
References
External links
Visit Penrith – Penrith City Council Tourism website
Future plan for Penrith CBD
– Nepean Belle Paddlewheeler
Penrith City Council website
Penrith City History
Penrith Panthers Rugby League Club
Penrith on Visit NSW
Penrith News & Events
Western Weekender Newspaper
SYDNEY.com – Penrith
[CC-By-SA]
Suburbs of Sydney
Cities in New South Wales
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356175
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed%20to%20fly
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Speed to fly
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Speed to fly is a principle used by soaring pilots when flying between sources of lift, usually thermals, ridge lift and wave. The aim is to maximize the average cross-country speed by optimizing the airspeed in both rising and sinking air. The optimal airspeed is independent of the wind speed, because the fastest average speed achievable through the airmass corresponds to the fastest achievable average groundspeed.
The speed to fly is the optimum speed through sinking or rising air mass to achieve either the furthest glide, or fastest average cross-country speed.
Most speed to fly setups use units of either airspeed in kilometers per hour (km/h) and climb rate in meters per second (m/s), or airspeed in knots (kn) and climb rate in feet per minute (ft/min).
History
The idea is usually attributed to Paul MacCready, although an early version of the theory was first described by Wolfgang Späte in 1938.
However Späte may not have considered sinking air between thermals, and there is no mention of this until 1947 when Ernest Dewing and George Pirie independently included this aspect.
In 1954, Paul MacCready described an Optimum Airspeed Selector, that he had been using since 1947. According to MacCready, the crosscountry airspeed selector is "a simple device that indicates the optimum speed at which a sailplane should be flown between thermals. On a day with weak thermals and weak downcurrents, a pilot should fly between thermals at a velocity near that for best gliding angle of the sailplane...If the next thermal to be encountered is expected to be strong, the pilot should dive toward it at high velocity in order to reach it as fast as possible. Note the magnitude of the wind is of no concern when considering thermals which move with the air mass. For the derivation of the airspeed selector one minimizes the time for the sailplane to reach a thermal and regain the original height."
According to Bob Wander, "The principal advantage of making a rotatable speed-to-fly ring for your total energy variometer is that cross-country speeds in gliding can be optimized when we factor the strength of thermals into the speed-to-fly process. For instance, when thermals are weak, then it pays to fly conservatively...minimum sinking speed...We are able to cruise faster between thermals when lift is strong because it is so easy to get altitude back in strong lift".
Instrumentation
The minimal instrumentation required is an airspeed indicator and a variometer. The pilot will use the polar curve information for the particular glider to derive the exact speeds to fly, minimum sink or maximum L/D, depending on the lift and sink conditions in which the glider is flying. A speed to fly ring (known as a 'MacCready Ring'), which is fitted around the aircraft's variometer, will indicate the optimum airspeed to fly between thermals for maximum crosscountry performance. The ring is usually calibrated in either knots or meters per second and its markings are based on the aircraft's polar curve. During the glide between thermals, the index arrow is set at the rate of climb expected in the next thermal. On the speed ring, the variometer needle points to the optimum speed to fly between thermals.
Electronic versions of the MacCready Ring are built into glide computers that will give audible warnings to the pilot to speed up or slow down. Similar facilities can also be built into a PDA. The computer is connected to sensors that detect the aircraft's airspeed and rate of sink. If linked to a GPS, and using a computed or manual estimate of the windspeed, the glide computer can also calculate the speed and altitude necessary to glide to a particular destination. This glide is known as the final glide because no further lift should be necessary to reach the goal. During this glide, speed to fly information is needed to ensure that the remaining height is used efficiently.
See also
Geoffrey H. Stephenson
ICAO recommendations on use of the International System of Units
References
External links
Performance Airspeeds for the Soaring Challenged by Jim D. Burch (mirror of defunct original page via avia.tion.ca)
MacCready Theory with Uncertain Lift and Limited Altitude Paper from Technical Soaring 23 (3) (July 1999) 88-96, by John H. Cochrane
Just a little faster, please (new version, 2007) paper by John H. Cochrane
The Price You Pay for McCready Speeds by Wil Schuemann, from the Proceedings of the 1972 Soaring Symposium
Competition Philosophy by Dick Johnson, from the Proceedings of the 1972 Soaring Symposium
Introduction to Cross Country Soaring by Kai Gersten, 1999 (Revised 2006)
This Brilliant Man Can Get You In Trouble – Misapply MacCready Theory At Your Own Peril by Clemens Ceipek, 2021
Airspeed
Gliding
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356176
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noda%20Castle
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Noda Castle
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was a Sengoku period castle located in eastern Mikawa Province in what is today part of the city of Shinshiro, Aichi Prefecture, Japan.
History
A fortified residence was constructed on this site by Suganuma Sadanori in 1508. The Suganuma clan were a subordination branch of the Okudaira clan, who ruled most of Mikawa Province. The castle was seized by the Imagawa clan in 1560, shortly before their defeat at the Battle of Okehazama in Owari Province. Suganuma Sadamitsu recovered the castle in a night battle in 1562. However, in 1571, a reconnaissance-in-force by the Takeda clan, led by Yamagata Masakage took the castle and held it briefly with little difficulty. When the armies of the Takeda clan, led by Takeda Shingen invaded Mikawa Province in 1573, the Takeda clan attempted to seize Noda Castle once again. However, in the past couple of years, the castle defenses had been increased by Suganuma Sadamichi, and the castle held out for several weeks.
They only reached the point of surrender after Takeda's sappers tunneled into the moats, draining them of water. During this Siege of Noda Castle, Takeda Shingen was wounded by a sniper's bullet, possibly fatally as he died only a few weeks later.
Noda Castle was abandoned around 1590, after Tokugawa Ieyasu relocated to Edo Castle. The site now is an overgrown forested area, with only a stone marker to commemorate the location.
External links
References
Castles in Aichi Prefecture
Former castles in Japan
Ruined castles in Japan
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356177
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege%20of%20Noda%20Castle
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Siege of Noda Castle
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The took place from January to February 1573, between the forces of the Takeda clan, led by the noted warlord Takeda Shingen, against the Tokugawa clan, led by Tokugawa Ieyasu. Along with the Battle of Mikatagahara it was one of the final battles in Takeda Shingen's long career.
Background
Encouraged by his victory over the Tokugawa at the Battle of Mikatagahara in neighboring Tōtōmi Province, Takeda Shingen decided to push farther into Mikawa Province, hopefully opening a route to the capital, Kyoto. Leading a mixed cavalry and infantry force of 30,000 men, Shingen skirted the northern shore of Lake Hamana before advancing inland into Mikawa. His route was opposed by approximately 500 defenders of Noda Castle, situated on the Toyokawa river, commanded by Suganuma Sadamichi. Shingen was confident in his strength of numbers, and in his knowledge that the Tokugawa forces were overextended in various campaigns. Furthermore, his forces had taken Noda Castle with ease during a reconnaissance-in-force two years earlier.
The battle
Suganuma had extensively increased the defensive capabilities of Noda Castle over the past two years with additional earthworks and a wooden palisade.
However, Shingen's kanabori-shū (sapper corps, composed of troops with mining experience) tunneled into the castle moat, draining it and depriving the defenders of their drinking water as well as their primary defense.
Shingen extended an offer to spare the lives of the rank-and-file troops provided that Suganuma surrender on February 16.
Though the castle's surrender was now imminent, Shingen let his guard down when he approached the castle, and a sniper shot him.
Aftermath
Following the surrender of Noda Castle, Tokugawa forces were in retreat throughout Mikawa, and even Tokugawa Ieyasu’s stronghold of Okazaki Castle was threatened. However, Takeda Shingen died in May 1573 (whether from illness or from the wound sustained at the Battle of Noda Castle), and his forces were unable to maintain their momentum under his successor, Takeda Katsuyori.
References
Sadler, A.L. The Maker of Modern Japan, the Life of Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu. George Allen & Unwin (London) 1937
Turnbull, Stephen. The Samurai Sourcebook. London: Cassell & Co. (1998).
Noda
Noda
1573 in Japan
Conflicts in 1573
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noto%20Peninsula
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Noto Peninsula
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The Noto Peninsula (能登半島, Noto-hantō) is a peninsula that projects north into the Sea of Japan from the coast of Ishikawa Prefecture in central Honshū, the main island of Japan. The main industries of the peninsula are agriculture, fisheries, and tourism.
Name
According to Alexander Vovin, the name is derived from Ainu 'cape' or 'big cape'.
It is written with two ateji (ad hoc kanji used for an unrelated word): 能 nō 'ability' and 登 tō/to 'ascend'.
Area and spots
Three regions
The area of the Noto Peninsula is divided into 3 regions.
Kuchi-Noto (Entrance of Noto)South part of the area. Hakui City, Kahoku City, Hōdatsu-shimizu Town, Shika Town
Naka-Noto (Middle of Noto)Middle part of the area. Nanao City, Wakura Onsen Resort, Naka-Noto Town, Tatsuruhama
Oku-Noto (Deep Noto or North Noto)North part of the area. Wajima City, Suzu City, Noto Town, Anamizu Town, Noto Island
Notable spots
Wakura OnsenLocated in Nanao City, this onsen (or "hot springs") is a famous health resort. The JR Nanao Line also terminates here.
Keta Great ShrineLocated in Hakui City and well known as a shrine for finding a lover and for a good marriage.
Wajima Morning Market This market is held in the center of Wajima City. Shoppers can buy a variety of fresh fish and vegetables cheaply.
Soji Templelocated in Monzen Town, is a head temple of Sōtō Zen Buddhism. Here there are also older cathedrals, as well as a newer one located in Kanagawa Prefecture.
Mitsuke Jima Meaning "found island" it is located in Suzu City. The name comes from the legend in which Saint Kukai found his magic stick here.
UnokeLocated in Kahoku City, the first office computer in Japan was manufactured by Unoke Electronics (now PFU), which was established in this town.
AnamizuKnown as one of the places where Percival Lowell made a stay during his visit to Japan, a memorial hall dedicated to him stands on a small hill near Anamizu Bay.
In film
The Noto Peninsula features prominently in the Japanese film noir Zero Focus (Zero no Shoten, 1961), directed by Yoshitaro Nomura. The film features breathtaking footage of the peninsula's coast, along with an interesting dissection of the area's social distinctions. Noto Peninsula is also the setting of Hirokazu Koreeda's second film Maborosi (1995) and Shōhei Imamura's final film Warm Water Under a Red Bridge (Akai Hashi no Shita no Nurui Mizu, 2001). Suzu, the city located at the tip of the Noto Peninsula is the setting for the 2014 film Saihate Nite.
Transportation
JR Nanao Line comes from Kanazawa to Wakura Onsen Station via Unoke, Hakui, Nanao.
Noto Railway Small local railway from Wakura to Anamizu.
Noto Airport Located between Anamizu and Wajima. Air line to Tokyo International Airport.
Noto Satoyama Kaido Stretches from Kanazawa to Anamizu Town.
No-etu Expressway (partly opened) Comes from Oyabe (Toyama) to Wajima via Nanao and Noto Airport.
Suzu Road A free elongation of the Noto Tollway, from Anamizu to Suzu.
Route 249 National road that stretches around the Noto Peninsula.
Products
Wajima-nuriFamous for beautiful Japanese lacquerware produced around Wajima City.
IshiriA special fish sauce used for local dishes.
Kan-buri A fish (Japanese amberjack) that is eaten in winter. Yellowtails are called by different names as they grow. In Noto, they are called "Kozokura" -> "Fukuragi" -> "Ganto" -> "Buri".
Sweet Potato Candy There are many confectioners of this cake located in Deep Noto.
Sea Salt Noto is the only region in Japan to still produce salt using the Agehama method of salt manufacture, where sea water is brought up in buckets from the ocean to salt fields.
Events
On March 25, 2007, the 2007 Noto earthquake shook the peninsula, causing one death and at least 170 injuries.
Heritage designation
The Noto Peninsula was designated as a part of Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems, awarded by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Japan) in 2011.
References
Peninsulas of Japan
Landforms of Ishikawa Prefecture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker%20Siddeley%20HS%20748
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Hawker Siddeley HS 748
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The Hawker Siddeley HS 748 is a medium-sized turboprop airliner originally designed and initially produced by the British aircraft manufacturer Avro. It was the last aircraft to be developed by Avro prior to its absorption by Hawker Siddeley.
The HS 748 was developed during the late 1950s as a move to re-orientate the company towards the civil and export markets. Powered by the popular Rolls-Royce Dart turboprop engine, it was specifically designed as a modern feederliner to act as a replacement for the aging Douglas DC-3s then in widespread service. Originally intended to seat a smaller number of passengers, market research indicated that a seating capacity of around 40 passengers would be optimal for the type. As a means to differentiate the new airliner from competitors, it was designed to possess a high level of performance, including its short takeoff and landing (STOL) capabilities and overall ruggedness. First flying on 24 June 1960, the series 1 HS 748 entered revenue service during the following year.
Once in service, the HS 748 found itself a niche within the short-haul market. Several different models would be developed of the regional airliner, typical improvements being the adoption of increasingly powerful Dart engines and a higher gross weight. Perhaps the most distinct variant was the HS 780 Andover, a dedicated military transport model developed for the Royal Air Force (RAF) that featured a large rear loading ramp and a squatting main landing gear to assist in loading bulky freight items. By 1988, the year in which production of the type was terminated, 380 aircraft had been produced between Hawker Siddeley (the owning company of Avro) and Indian aviation company Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL). During the 1990s, a larger, stretched development of the HS 748, the BAe ATP, was developed and had attempted to compete with market leaders such as the de Havilland Canada Dash 8 and ATR 42, but saw only limited sales prior to production being terminated.
Development
Background
Following the release of the 1957 Defence White Paper, in which then-Minister of Defence Duncan Sandys announced that the termination of almost all manned military aircraft development, aircraft manufacturer Avro decided that it should place a greater emphasis upon the civilian market. Ten years prior, it had launched a civilian airliner, the Avro Tudor series, but this had encountered few sales; thus, during 1958, it was decided to commence work upon a clean-sheet design, which would eventually become the HS 748. On 9 January 1959, the existence of the project, then referred to as the Avro 748, was announced to the public.
By this point, the four-engined Vickers Viscount had already secured the larger end of the short-haul market, therefore Avro decided that it would design a smaller regional airliner, powered by a pair of Rolls-Royce Dart turboprop engines. It was envisioned that this aircraft would be a suitable replacement for the many DC-3 Dakotas that were by then reaching the end of their economic lifespan. According to aviation periodical Flight International, a major goal for the design team was to produce an aircraft that would be capable of operating from any airfield that the DC-3 could be.
Early intentions for the airliner was of a 20–30 seat aircraft, adopting a somewhat similar configuration to the future rival Fokker F27 Friendship; however, following discussions with several potential customers, the company opted for a low-wing 40-seat configuration. It was this latter arrangement that was chosen for the 748 project. Another important focus for the prospective airliner was compliance with both British and American standards of airworthiness; accordingly, it would be one of the first medium-sized aircraft to incorporate fail-safe design principles for its structure in place of the then-common safe-life principles being practiced. The airframe effectively lacked any imposed lifespan; during development, it was successfully tested using a water tank for up to the equivalent of 100,000 flight hours.
Avro was not the only company to see the potential for a DC-3 replacement and, by this point, work on the 748's direct competitor, the Dutch-built F27 Friendship, was well advanced. To differentiate itself from the competition, Avro decided to focus its efforts upon achieving a more rugged design that offered superior short takeoff and landing (STOL) performance, which enabled the prospective airliner to be operated from smaller and more austere airports, including those without modern runways. This STOL capability was accomplished via several features, including the adoption of a long, high lift wing, which was fitted with a unique single slot flap with a hinged flap tab at the trailing edge. This wing was mounted low on the fuselage with dihedral from the root, allowing for good overall ground clearance and the easy mounting of strong landing gear. Operationally, pilots were provided with a choice of three takeoff flap settings to select the level of STOL performance required.
Another supportive feature of the 748 was a design decision to adopt straightforward systems and use proven components where realistically possible. For operator convenience, the engines were provided with an internal ignition system; various other systems and structures throughout the airliner were designed to be easy to inspect and to perform repairs upon, even when at unprepared airstrips with limited equipment available. Likely as a consequence of these favourable qualities, the 748 quickly attracted the attention of a variety of airlines, particularly those that typically operated in remote areas, which has been attributed to its ability to operate from short rough fields without any ground service equipment while being capable of hauling payloads in excess of 10,000 lb.
Into flight
On 24 June 1960, the first Avro 748 made its maiden flight from the company's Woodford, Cheshire aircraft factory. Flight testing of the two prototypes quickly validated the type's short-field performance. Eighteen Avro 748 Series 1 aircraft were produced; during April 1962, the first production aircraft were delivered to launch customer Skyways Coach-Air Limited. However, the majority of the series 1 were export sales to operator Aerolíneas Argentinas. During the early 1960s, Avro's individual identity within the Hawker Siddeley Group was expunged, after which the airliner was marketed by the parent company as the HS 748.
After the initial batch of series 1 aircraft was completed, production transitioned to the improved series 2. The series 2 was largely similar to its predecessor, principally benefiting from the adoption of more powerful Dart RDa 7 Mk 531 engines and an increased gross weight. According to aviation periodical Flight International, during 1960, the basic price for a new Avro 748 Series 1 was £176,000, while that of the corresponding Avro 748 Series 2 was reportedly £196,000.
During 1967, the series 2A was introduced, which was the same basic aircraft powered by Mk. 532 engines along with a further increase in gross weight. From 1971 onwards, several new options were made available to customers, including a large freight door in the rear cabin and a strengthened cabin floor. During 1979, the Series 2B was introduced, which saw a 4-foot increase in wingspan, the adoption of Mk 536-2 engines, along with a modernised passenger cabin, and various improvements to the fuel, water methanol injection system, and engine fire protection systems.
During 1976, Eric Johnson, sales engineering manager of Hawker Siddeley Manchester, stated that the company was studying options for equipping a model of the HS 748 with turbofan engines, and that a preferred powerplant at that point was the Rolls-Royce/SNECMA M45H, as used on the VFW-Fokker 614 jetliner. Other changes would likely have been incorporated, including the addition of lift dumpers and adaptive brakes for better landing performance, while electrical, hydraulic and air conditioning systems would be redesigned; externally, a dihedral would have to be introduced to keep the tailplane clear of the jet exhaust. It was envisioned that the reengined aircraft could offers larger seating arrangements of up to 64 seats.
In addition to the British production line, manufacture of the 748 was also performed overseas. Early on, India had placed orders for the type. Both the 748 Series 1 and Series 2 were licence-produced in Indian manufacturer Hindustan Aeronautics (HAL), aircraft produced by the company were designated HAL-748. On 1 November 1961, the first Indian-assembled HAL-748 made its first flight. By the end of production, HAL had completed 89 Indian-built aircraft, 72 of which were for the Indian Air Force and 17 were delivered to national flag carrier Indian Airlines.
While the HS 748 was originally intended to be marketed principally towards the civilian market, numerous examples were sold to military customers around the world. Hawker Siddeley used the design as the basis for the HS 780 Andover, a military transport aircraft developed and produced for the Royal Air Force. In terms of its design, the HS 780 was broadly similar to the 748, differing primarily by its redesigned rear fuselage and empennage, which incorporated a large rear loading ramp and a squatting main landing gear to better facilitate the loading of bulky freight items.
During 1988, production of the HS 748 was terminated, while the last British-assembled aircraft made its first flight on 1 December of that year. According to BAE Systems, a successor company to Hawker Siddeley, during the type's production life, a total of 381 aircraft had been produced, when including both the Andover and HAL-built examples.
Operational history
Within its first decade of its availability, sales of the HS 748 had reportedly been relatively brisk; by 1976, the sale of 312 aircraft had been recorded, of which 259 had been to export customers. Within ten years of its launch, India had emerged as the largest single market for the airliner, Indian Airlines being the largest HS 748 operator with a fleet of 26 aircraft. It had been popular with numerous commercial operators, across the Caribbean and Latin America alone, 63 HS 748s were in operation with 11 separate operators.
The HS 748 had been able to achieve some triumphs over competing rivals, including the F27 Friendship. Philippine Airlines had been the F27's largest operator prior to its decision to replace both it and its remaining DC-3s with the HS 748, which represented a significant sales coup for the latter. Other major civil operators included Aerolineas Argentinas, VARIG, Thai Airways, LAN-Chile, and Bouraq Airlines. Several of these operators would utilise its STOL capabilities in their services; according to Flight International, over one-third of all scheduled operations were reportedly involved operations from rough airstrips with minimalist facilities.
Another key market for the HS 748 was the executive role; the type was repeatedly procured to serve as the designated aircraft for various heads of state, including of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, India, Venezuela, Zambia, Thailand and the United Kingdom. The HS 748 was one of the last planes to be flown by noted aviator and business magnate Howard Hughes. During 1972, Hughes performed several flights of the type, each time accompanied by Hawker Siddeley test pilot Tony Blackman, flying from the company's airport in Hatfield.
The Australian military purchased several aircraft; specifically, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) procured a fleet of ten HS 748s, the first of which arriving in 1968, for navigation training and transporting VIPs. The Royal Australian Navy (RAN) operated a pair of HS 748s starting in 1973 as a navigational trainer. Following Cyclone Tracy, relief aid was delivered across Darwin, Northern Territory using the type; after being fitted with various electronic countermeasures (ECM) during the late 1970s, HS 748s were also used for electronic warfare training.
In a typical passenger configuration, the HS 748 can accommodate around 40–48 economy class seats in a four abreast layout; however, the majority of later-serving passenger HS 748s were typically operated as quick change combis. These aircraft are fitted with a movable bulkhead that divides the main cabin, housing between 4 and 40 seats in the rear section while cargo is placed the forward section. The 748 has also been widely used as a pure freighter, having a typical max payload of about 12,000 lbs. Several carriers have used the 748 as a bulk fuel hauler, in which capacity it is normally with either seven or eight fixed tanks in the cabin, possessing a total capacity of about .
The ICAO designator as used in flight plans is A748.
Variants
748 Series 1 – The original Avro 748 twin-engined short / medium-range airliner, powered by two Rolls-Royce Dart RDa 7 Mk 514 turboprop engines. 24 built.
– The Series 2 entered production in 1961 with a higher take-off weight and Mk 531 engines. 111 built.
– Introduced in 1967, with a further increase in take-off weight and Mk 532 or 534 engines. 157 built, making the 748 one of the more successful British airliners and the 2A the most popular variant.
748 Series 2B – The main production model after Hawker-Siddeley was absorbed by British Aerospace, the 2B featured a 4-foot increase in wingspan, increased gross weight, Mk 536 engines, a modernized cabin, and systems improvements. 28 built.
Super 748 – Basically the same as the 2B but fitted with engine hush kits. 8 Built.
Hawker Siddeley HS780 Andover – Modified version of the 748 design for the Royal Air Force. Fitted with kneeling undercarriage, raised tail unit and rear loading ramp.
Coastguarder – A maritime patrol version.
748 Andover – Military passenger transport versions of the 748.
HAL 748 – Licence production by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited at Bangalore India. Indian aircraft were later modified for a variety of roles including a trials aircraft for an Airborne Early Warning version fitted with a large radome, known as the Airborne Surveillance Platform (ASP). 89 built.
HAL 748 Series 2M – Production for the Indian Air Force (the last 20 built) were Series 2M aircraft with a large freight door.
Accidents and incidents
On 10 July 1965, an Avro 748-101 Series 1 G-ARMV of Skyways Coach-Air was written off in a landing accident at Lympne Airport. The 51 people on board survived. This was the first accident that resulted in a write-off on an Avro 748 / HS748.
On 15 August 1967, two accidents involving HS-748-222 Series 2 aircraft of Channel Airways Limited, occurred roughly 90 minutes apart at Portsmouth Airport. In the first incident, G-ATEK, operating a scheduled service from Southend to Paris, via Portsmouth, landed in rainy conditions and was unable to stop in the available distance on the grass runway. The aircraft slid sideways, left the runway and stopped on an embankment. Some 90 minutes later, aircraft G-ATEH, operating a scheduled service from Jersey, via Guernsey to Portsmouth, landed and slid on the runway, crashed through a perimeter fence and came to rest on the main Eastern Road. There were no injuries in either accident, but both aircraft sustained serious damage. An AIB investigation reported that "both accidents were caused by inadequate braking which had resulted from the extremely low coefficient of friction provided by the very wet grass surface over the hard, dry and almost impermeable sub-soil".
On 4 February 1970, Aerolíneas Argentinas Flight 707, an Avro 748–105, crashed into the ground after the pilots lost control of the aircraft. The aircraft crashed at Loma Alta, Argentina and killed all 37 on board.
On 9 December 1971, Indian Airlines, an HS 748, near Chinnamanur was descending into Madurai when it flew into high terrain about 50 mi (80 km) from the airport, killing the four crew members and 17 passengers. There were ten survivors among the passengers. The accident occurred in reduced visibility during daylight hours.
20 January 1976 – a TAME HS 748-246 Series 2A registration HC-AUE crashed while flying over mountainous terrain at 10,000 feet. The aircraft struck trees with its right wing, lost control and crashed into the side of the mountain. The plane was en route from Loja to Simón Bolívar International Airport in Guayaquil, Ecuador. Six crewmembers and 28 passengers were killed; 8 passengers survived.
3 March 1978 – Línea Aeropostal Venezolana Hawker Siddeley HS 748 crashed on departure from Simón Bolívar International Airport, Venezuela, all 46 on board are killed.
7 September 1978 – Air Ceylon HS 748 4R-ACJ destroyed by fire while parked at Colombo-Ratmalana, resulting from detonation of bomb placed on board by terrorists. There were no fatalities.
31 July 1979 at Sumburgh Airport in the Shetland Islands, Scotland; Dan-Air Flight 0034, an HS 748 series 1 (registration G-BEKF) operating an oil industry support flight crashed. The aircraft failed to become airborne and crashed into the sea. The accident was due to the elevator gust-lock having become re-engaged, preventing the aircraft from rotating into a flying attitude. The aircraft was destroyed and 17 persons died from drowning.
4 August 1979 - The Indian Airlines HAL-748 (VT-DXJ) was operating a scheduled flight from Pune to Bombay, India. The aircraft crashed in the Kiroli Hills near Panvel about 11 km east of Bombay. The aircraft was destroyed. All 45 persons on board were killed.
22 August 1979 – An aircraft mechanic (a former non-commissioned officer of the Colombian Air Force), stole a military HS 748 (FAC-1101) from a military hangar at the Eldorado International Airport in Bogotá, Colombia. According to the news, this person stole the aircraft with the intention of crashing it against his parents' house. After some minutes in the air, it ran out of fuel and crashed, killing the impromptu pilot and three people on the ground.
26 June 1981 – Dan-Air Flight 240, an HS 748 2A mail flight from Gatwick Airport to East Midlands Airport crashed at Nailstone killing the 3 crew members. While descending, the right-hand rear door detached, struck the horizontal tail plane and became lodged on its leading edge. Control was lost, and the aircraft entered a steep dive. During the dive, the wings and tail plane failed due to overstressing.
19 August 1981 – Indian Airlines Flight 557, an HAL 748 (VT-DXF) overshot the runway at Mangalore-Bajpe Airport in wet weather. The aircraft came to a halt just beyond the runway edge. There were no fatalities but the damaged aircraft was written off. One of the passengers on board was Veerappa Moily ex-Cabinet Minister for Law, Justice and Company Affairs in the Government of India.
11 October 1983 – Air Illinois Flight 710 carrying 10 people crashed at night in a thunderstorm between Pinckneyville and Tamaroa, IL. The flight originated at Chicago's Meigs Field and had stopped at Springfield, IL. The left generator had failed after takeoff and the first officer had mistakenly isolated the right generator. Attempts to restore the right generator were unsuccessful. The captain elected to continue to the destination rather than return to the nearby airport. The cloud base was at 2000 feet MSL, but ATC could not provide an IFR below 3,000 feet. Just before the crash, the crew indicated a total loss of electrical power. The left generator drive shaft had sheared. All ten passengers and crew were killed.
27 June 1987 – Philippine Airlines Flight 206 crashed onto a mountain after poor visibility hampered the pilot's attempt to land at Loakan Airport in Baguio, Philippines. All 50 passengers and crew were killed.
15 September 1988 - A Bradley Air Services HS-748 ( C-GFFA ) cargo plane was destroyed when it crashed while on approach to Ottawa International Airport, ON (YOW), Canada. Both pilots were killed. The airplane had arrived at Montreal-Dorval International Airport, QC (YUL) following a cargo flight from Dayton, OH, USA. All the cargo was unloaded in Montreal and the aircraft departed at 09:58 for Ottawa on an instrument flight rules (IFR) flight plan. The en route phase of the flight were uneventful. At about 10:19, while the aircraft was in level cruise flight at 3000 feet at approximately 200 knots indicated airspeed (KIAS), the flight data recorder (FDR) recorded a full-up deflection of the left aileron and a full-down deflection of the right aileron, and the aircraft began a roll to the left at a high rate. The right aileron remained at the fully-deflected position for a period of three seconds, and then, over the next seven seconds, the deflection gradually decreased by about five degrees. During the same 10-second period, the left aileron remained nearly fully deflected for the first eight seconds, then the deflection decreased by about five degrees during the next two seconds. By this time, the aircraft had rolled through approximately 460 degrees, and the aircraft nose had dropped 20 to 30 degrees below the horizon. At this point, the ailerons suddenly returned to about the neutral position and remained there for the last three seconds of the flight. The aircraft bank angle remained at approximately 90 degrees of left bank with a maximum vertical g of 4.7 recorded. The aircraft struck the ground at an airspeed of approximately 290 KIAS after a heading change of about 75 degrees left of the cruise heading. At impact, the aircraft bank angle was nearly 90 degrees left and the pitch angle was 41 degrees down. The time from the initial aileron deflection to ground impact was approximately 18 seconds.
10 November 1993 – Nothland Air Manitoba. Hawker Siddeley HS-748-234 Srs. 2A. Registration C-GQTH. Departure airport Sandy Lake Airport, Ontario (ZSJ/CZSJ), Canada "about 600 km northeast of Winnipeg.". The aircraft took off from runway 29 at Sandy Lake at approximately 1805 and entered a right turn. Witnesses indicate that the aircraft appeared to fly at a lower than normal height throughout the turn. After turning through approximately 120 degrees, the aircraft descended into 100-foot trees and crashed. The aircraft struck the ground about 1 nm northwest of the airport. Contributing factor was the loss of AC power to some of the flight instruments the reason for which could not be determined. All 3 crew members and 4 passengers perished.
28 April 1995 – Sri Lanka Air Force Avro 748 CR835 an HS 748 serial CR835 (4R-HVB) was hit by an SA-7 missile fired by the LTTE immediately after takeoff from Palaly. All 45 occupants were killed. Crew managed to return the aircraft for landing but the starboard wing collapsed on short finals 295 meters from threshold due to an extensive fire in No-2 engine.
11 January 1999 – ASTE HAL-748 ASP/H-2175, an HAL 748 crashed into the ground after the pilots lost control of the aircraft. The aircraft crashed at Attur, Tamil Nadu, India, killing the 2 crew and 6 passengers.
5 September 1999 – Necon Air Flight 128 from Pokhara to Kathmandu, a BAe 748-501 Super 2B (9N-AEG) collided with a communication tower of Nepal Telecommunication Corporation and crashed in a wooded area 25 km west of Kathmandu, while approaching Tribhuvan International Airport. All 10 passengers and 5 crew were killed.
1 June 2002 – Former South African cricket captain Hansie Cronje's scheduled flight home from Bloemfontein to George had been grounded, so he hitched a ride as the only passenger on a cargo flight in an HS 748. Near George airport, the pilots lost visibility in cloud, and were unable to land, partly due to unserviceable navigational equipment. While circling, the plane crashed into the Outeniqua mountains northeast of the airport. Cronje, aged 32, and the two pilots died. South Africa's High Court reached the conclusion that "the death of the deceased Wessel Johannes (Hansie) Cronje was brought about by an act or omission prima facie amounting to an offence on the part of pilots." However, with Cronje's involvement in match-fixing, theories that Cronje was murdered on the orders of a cricket betting syndicate flourished after his death.
12 June 2012 – A Wasaya Airways Hawker Siddeley 748 caught fire during ground operations at Sandy Lake First Nation in Northwestern Ontario. No injuries were reported. The aircraft burned completely; only the left wing and nacelle survived.
17 February 2014 – an HS 748-371 Srs 2B crash landed at Rubkona airport in South Sudan killing one crew member and injuring the other three. The cargo plane was carrying humanitarian Aid to South Sudan.
14 November 2014 – A BAe HS-748 crashed on approach to Panyagor airstrip in South Sudan, killing two crew members and seriously injuring a third crew member. The cargo plane was on a charter flight for the Lutheran World Federation and carrying relief supplies from Juba, South Sudan.
Operators
Civil operators
As of July 2018 a total of 12 HS 748 aircraft (all variants) remained in airline service. As of September 2018 Transport Canada (TC) list 13 HS 748 in Canada with a current Certificate of Registration and 1 with a cancelled certificate. Current operators are:
Air Creebec (3)
Air Inuit (1 as per reference above, 4 as per TC)
Air North (1 as per reference above, 2 as per Air North, 4 as per TC)
Avro Express (1)
Bismillah Airlines (2)
Planes For Africa (2)
Safe Air Company (1)
Wasaya Airways (2 as per reference above, 3 as per TC)
Former civil operators
East Horizon Airlines
Air Botswana
LIAT Airlines
Aerolineas Argentinas
Austrian Airlines (2)
Bahamasair
Bop Air (Operated one Aircraft)
Varig (11) [one Avro 748 Series 2 prototype and 10 production aircraft]
British Virgin Islands
Air BVI
Air Gaspé
Air Manitoba
Austin Airways
Calm Air
First Air (9)
Midwest Airlines
Quebecair
Transair (Canada)
West Wind Aviation
TACV
LAN Chile
Avianca
Satena
Fiji Airways
Deutsche Flugsicherung
DLT Deutsche Luftverkehrsgesellschaft
Guyana Airways (now defunct)
Vayudoot (now defunct)
Indian Airlines (now Air India)
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited BH-572 Used by HAL Chairman
Bouraq Indonesia Airlines (now defunct)
Bali Air (now defunct) (4)
Airfast Indonesia
Ryan Air (2) 1986–1989 Inaugurating the Dublin-London (Luton) Service
748 Air Services
Air Madagascar
Air Malawi
Air Marshall Islands
Aeronaves de Mexico (now Aeromexico)
Aerocaribe (1) (Bought From Atlantic Airlines de Honduras)
Nepal Airlines
Necon Air
Mount Cook Airline
Philippine Airlines
SATA Air Açores
Polynesian Airlines (2)
Air Cape (South Africa)
AirQuarius (Operated 6 aircraft)
Executive Aerospace (Operated 13 aircraft)
Intensive Air
Stars Away Aviation
South African Airways (Operated 5 aircraft 1970–1983)
Aero Lanka (1)
Air Ceylon (2)
Lionair (1)
Bangkok Airways
Thai Airways Company
Trinidad and Tobago Air Service (TTAS)
British Airways
Dan Air
Emerald Airways
Janes Aviation (2)
Skyways Coach-Air Limited (5)
Air Illinois
Air Virginia (AVAir)
Cascade Airways
Aeropostal
Zambia Airways
Current military operators
Benin Air Force – One remains in service as of December 2017.
Border Security Force Air Wing
Indian Air Force : 57 remain in service as of December 2018.
Nepalese Army Air Service – One in service as of December 2017.
Republic of Korea Air Force: First used in April 1974.
Royal Thai Air Force
Former military operators
Royal Australian Air Force
School of Air Navigation RAAF/No. 32 Squadron RAAF – aircraft operated in navigation trainer configuration between 1968 and 2004
No. 34 Squadron RAAF – aircraft operated in VIP configuration between 1967 and 1996
Royal Australian Navy
Fleet Air Arm (RAN) – operated between 1973 and 2000
No. 723 Squadron RAN
No. 851 Squadron RAN
Belgian Air Force (Three operated from 1976, sold in 2001–2002 to Benin and replaced by four Embraer Regional Jets)
21 Squadron
Brazilian Air Force
Twelve aircraft operated between 1962 and 2005 as C-91.
Royal Brunei Air Force
()
Military of Burkina Faso - one aircraft
Cameroon Air Force
Colombian Air Force
Ecuadorian Air Force
Military of Madagascar
Sri Lanka Air Force
Tanzania Air Force Command - one aircraft
Royal Air Force
Venezuelan Air Force
Venezuelan Navy
Zambian Air Force - one aircraft
Specifications (Super 748)
Preserved aircraft
Australia
HS 748 Srs2/228, c/n 1601 ex-Royal Australian Air Force A10-601, at the RAAF Museum, Point Cook, Victoria.
HS 748 Srs2/228, c/n 1604 ex-Royal Australian Air Force A10-604, cockpit section at the Australian Aviation Museum, Bankstown Airport, New South Wales.
HS 748 Srs2/229, c/n 1607 ex-Royal Australian Air Force A10-607, tail section at No. 32 Squadron HQ, RAAF Base East Sale, Victoria.
HS 748 Srs2/268, c/n 1709 ex-Royal Australian Navy N15-709, at the Australian Aviation Museum, Bankstown Airport, New South Wales.
Brazil
HS 748 Srs2a/204, c/n 1554 ex-Brazilian Air Force 2504, at Museu Aeroespacial, Rio de Janeiro.
Ecuador
HS 748 Srs2a/285, c/n 1738 ex-Ecuadorian Air Force FAE738, at Museo Aeronáutico de la FAE, Mariscal Sucre International Airport, Quito.
South Africa
BAe-748-400 Srs2b, c/n 1796 ex-AirQuarius Aviation ZS-OLE, fuselage at Chartwell, Gauteng.
Sri Lanka
Avro 748 Srs 1, c/n 1587 ex-Sri Lanka Air Force CR-831, at the Sri Lanka Air Force Museum, Ratmalana Airport, Colombo.
HS 748 Srs2a/272, c/n 1691 ex-Sri Lanka Air Force SCM-3101, at SLAF Koggala, Galle.
HS 748 Srs2a/301, c/n 1746 ex-Sri Lanka Air Force CR-833, at SLAF Weerawilla.
Thailand
HS 748 Srs2/243, c/n 1707 ex-Thai Airways HS-THH, at Jomtien Beach. Fuselage preserved where it crash landed in 1987. Painted in fictional camouflage.
HS 748 Srs2a/243, c/n 1708 ex-Thai Airways HS-THI, at the Siam Country Club, Pattaya.
United Kingdom
Avro 748 Srs 1, c/n 1543 ex-Emerald Airways G-BEJD, at Speke Aerodrome Heritage Group, Liverpool John Lennon Airport.
HS 748 Srs2/225, c/n 1592 ex-Emerald Airways G-ATMI, nose and front fuselage at the RAF Millom Museum, Cumbria.
HS 748 Srs2/228, VH-AHL, c/n 1606 ex-Royal Australian Air Force A10-606, at the Skylark Hotel, adjacent to London Southend Airport.
HS 748 Srs2a/266, c/n 1714 ex-Emerald Airways G-OPFW, cockpit at the South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum, Doncaster.
HS 748 Srs2a/334, c/n 1756 ex-Emerald Airways G-ORAL, nose section at the Avro Heritage Museum, Woodford, Greater Manchester.
HS 748 Srs2a/372, c/n 1777 ex-Emerald Airways G-BVOV, fuselage underwater at the Capernwray Diving Centre near Carnforth.
See also
References
Citations
Bibliography
Blackman, Tony. "Flight Testing to Win." Lulu.com, 2005. .
External links
BAe/HS 748 AEW
1960s British airliners
HS 748
HS 748
Aircraft first flown in 1960
Low-wing aircraft
Twin-turboprop tractor aircraft
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356182
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noto%20Province
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Noto Province
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was a province of Japan in the area that is today the northern part of Ishikawa Prefecture in Japan, including the Noto Peninsula (Noto-hantō) which is surrounded by the Sea of Japan. Noto bordered on Etchū and Kaga provinces to the south, and was surrounded by the Sea of Japan to the east, north and west. Its abbreviated form name was .
History
In 718 A.D., four districts of Echizen Province, Hakui District, Noto District (also called Kashima District), Fugeshi District and Suzu District, were separated into Noto Province. However, in the year 741, the province was abolished, and merged into Etchū Province. Noto Province was subsequently re-established in 757.
The province disappears from history until the Wamyō Ruijushō of 930 AD, in which Minamoto no Shitagō is named as Kokushi of the province.
The Nara period provincial capital and provincial temple were located in what is now the city of Nanao, Ishikawa; however, the Ichinomiya (Keta Shrine) was located in what is now the city of Hakui, Ishikawa. Under the Engishiki classification system, Noto was ranked as a "middle country" (中国) in both importance and distance from the capital.
During the Sengoku period, Nanao Castle was a major stronghold of the Hatakeyama clan, and was contested by the Uesugi clan and Maeda clan. The area became part Kaga Domain controlled by the Maeda clan under the Edo period Tokugawa shogunate, with the exception of some scattered small holdings which retained by the shogunate directly as tenryō territory and administered by hatamoto for strategic purposes.
Following the Meiji Restoration and the abolition of the han system in 1871, Noto Province was renamed Nanao Prefecture and Imizu District from Etchū Province was added. However, in 1872 Nanao was merged with Kanazawa Prefecture (the former Kaga Province) to form modern Ishikawa Prefecture and Imizu District was given back to Niikawa Prefecture (the renamed Etchū Province). However, “Noto Province” continued to appear in official documents afterwards for some administrative purposes. For example, Noto is explicitly recognized in treaties in 1894 (a) between Japan and the United States and (b) between Japan and the United Kingdom.
Historical districts
Noto Province had 4 districts.
Ishikawa Prefecture
Fugeshi District (鳳至郡) - dissolved; now the western part of Hōsu District (鳳珠郡)
Hakui District (羽咋郡)
Kashima District (鹿島郡)
Suzu District (珠洲郡) - dissolved; now the eastern part of Hōsu District
Notes
References
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128
Papinot, Edmond. (1910). Historical and Geographic Dictionary of Japan. Tokyo: Librarie Sansaisha. OCLC 77691250
External links
Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Former provinces of Japan
History of Ishikawa Prefecture
1871 disestablishments in Japan
States and territories disestablished in 1871
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356184
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper%20Silesian
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Upper Silesian
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Upper Silesian may refer to:
a person from Upper Silesia
the West Slavic Silesian language
a person from the former Prussian Province of Upper Silesia
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356186
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keiz%C5%8D%20Obuchi
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Keizō Obuchi
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was a Japanese politician who served as Prime Minister of Japan from 1998 to 2000.
Obuchi was elected to the House of Representatives in Gunma Prefecture in 1963, becoming the youngest legislator in Japanese history, and was re-elected to his seat eleven times. Obuchi rose through the ranks of the Liberal Democratic Party and distinguished himself in the prominent posts of Chief Cabinet Secretary and Minister for Foreign Affairs in the 1980s and 1990s. Obuchi became Prime Minister in 1998 after replacing Ryutaro Hashimoto as president of the Liberal Democratic Party, and his premiership was characterized by attempts to reverse the effects of the Lost Decade. Obuchi entered a coma in office in 2000, less than two years into his term as Prime Minister, and was replaced by Yoshiro Mori shortly before his death.
Early life
Obuchi was born on 25 June 1937 in Nakanojō, Gunma Prefecture, the son of Mitsuhei Obuchi, one of four representatives in the National Diet for a district in Gunma. At the age of 13, Obuchi transferred to a private middle school in Tokyo and lived in the city for the rest of his life. In 1958, Obuchi enrolled at Waseda University as an English literature major, in hopes of becoming a writer. When his father died that same year, Obuchi decided to follow in his footsteps as a politician, and continued as a graduate student in political science after graduating with his Bachelor of Arts degree in English in 1962.
Between January and September 1963, Obuchi travelled to thirty-eight countries, completely circumnavigating the globe and taking odd jobs as he went, as he was short on money. These included being a dishwasher, an assistant aikido instructor and a TV camera crew assistant in Berlin which was the most physically demanding. While in the United States, Obuchi met Attorney-General Robert F. Kennedy, who had given a speech the previous year at Waseda University where Obuchi was a student. 36 years later while on a trip to visit President Bill Clinton as the Prime Minister of Japan, he would again meet Kennedy's secretary who had helped to arrange the earlier visit.
Political career
That November, inspired by his talk with Kennedy, Obuchi ran for the House of Representatives and was elected to a seat representing Gunma's 3rd district, making him the youngest legislator in Japanese history at 26 years of age. Obuchi served his first term in the Diet while pursuing graduate studies at Waseda University.
In 1979, Obuchi became the director of the Prime Minister's office and director of the Okinawa Development Agency, his first cabinet post. Obuchi served there for eight years before becoming Chief Cabinet Secretary in 1987. Two years later, Obuchi formally announced the death of Emperor Shōwa. As Chief Cabinet Secretary, Obuchi was tasked in making the famous announcement of the new era name "Heisei" for the new Emperor Akihito. He was then nicknamed "Uncle Heisei".
In 1991, Obuchi became secretary general of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), and in 1994 became its vice president. In 1997, Ryutaro Hashimoto appointed Obuchi as Minister of Foreign Affairs, where he distinguished himself in negotiations with Russia over Japanese claims in the Kuril Islands, as well as negotiations over the unification of Korea.
Premiership
In 1998, Hashimoto resigned as LDP president when the party lost its majority in the House of Councillors, the upper house of the Diet, and Obuchi was named his successor. When the Diet designated a new Prime Minister, Obuchi became only the second LDP candidate not to win the support of the House of Councillors. However, the Constitution of Japan stipulates that if the two chambers cannot agree on a choice for Prime Minister, the choice of the House of Representatives is deemed to be that of the Diet. With the LDP's large majority in the lower house, Obuchi was formally appointed Prime Minister on 30 July.
During his term as Prime Minister, Obuchi was focused on two major issues: signing a peace treaty with Russia and reviving the Japanese economy of the Lost Decade. His solution to the latter was to increase public spending and lowering income taxes, which briefly slowed the recession but ultimately did very little to turn it around. One of his government actions was to give shopping coupons to 35 million citizens in the hope it would spark a consumer boom. Obuchi's Russia policy also eluded implementation before his death. Obuchi's fiscal policy focused on strengthening the core capital requirements for financial institutions while issuing more Japanese government bonds to finance public infrastructure, which boosted the rising Japanese public debt.
Obuchi was known to have regularly enjoyed playing squash at the courts in the Canadian Embassy in Tokyo`s Azabu. Squash players tend to be very fit as it is excellent cardiovascular exercise, which was at odds with his depiction in Japanese media as which construed his poor physical health mirrored the precarious state of Japan's economy.
Death
On 1 April 2000, Obuchi suffered a massive stroke and slipped into a coma at Tokyo's Juntendo University Hospital while still in office. When it became apparent Obuchi would never regain consciousness, he was replaced by Yoshirō Mori on 5 April. Obuchi died on 14 May at the age of 62; a state funeral was held in his honour at the Nippon Budokan on 8 June and was attended by foreign dignitaries from 156 countries and 22 organizations, including about 25 heads of state. Notable presences at Obuchi’s funeral included UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, U.S. president Bill Clinton, and South Korean president Kim Dae-jung.
Personal life
Obuchi married environmental essayist Chizuko Ono in 1967. They were introduced by Tomisaburo Hashimoto, a Diet member and relative of Prime Minister Ryutaro Hashimoto. They had one son and two daughters. Their younger daughter, Yūko Obuchi, ran for and was elected to the former prime minister's Diet seat in the 2000 election. Obuchi was a great fan of the works of the late historical novelist Ryōtarō Shiba, and a particular admirer of Sakamoto Ryōma, a key figure in the events leading to the Meiji Restoration.
Obuchi also had the unusual hobby of collecting figures of oxen. It relates to the fact that he was born in the Year of the Ox, the second year of the Chinese zodiac. He started collecting the figures following his initial election to the Diet in 1963, and after three and a half decades, the collection numbered in the thousands. He was also devoted to aikido and enjoyed golf as well.
Honours
Medal of Honour with Yellow Ribbon for Best Father (1999)
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (14 May 2000; posthumous)
Senior Second Rank (14 May 2000; posthumous)
Golden Pheasant Award of the Scout Association of Japan (1998)
References
External links
"Profile & Personality of Prime Minister Keizo Obuchi." Japanese Prime Minister's Office site (Japanese version)
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1937 births
2000 deaths
20th-century prime ministers of Japan
People from Gunma Prefecture
Foreign ministers of Japan
Prime Ministers of Japan
Waseda University alumni
Liberal Democratic Party (Japan) politicians
Deaths from cerebrovascular disease
Politicians from Gunma Prefecture
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356188
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale%20Gazelle
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Aérospatiale Gazelle
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The Aérospatiale Gazelle (company designations SA 340, SA 341 and SA 342) is a French five-seat helicopter, commonly used for light transport, scouting and light attack duties. It is powered by a single Turbomeca Astazou turbine engine and was the first helicopter to feature a fenestron tail instead of a conventional tail rotor. It was designed by Sud Aviation, later Aérospatiale, and manufactured in France and the United Kingdom through a joint production agreement with Westland Aircraft. Further manufacturing under license was performed by SOKO in Yugoslavia and the Arab British Helicopter Company (ABHCO) in Egypt.
Since being introduced to service in 1973, the Gazelle has been procured and operated by a number of export customers. It has also participated in numerous conflicts around the world, including by Syria during the 1982 Lebanon War, by Rwanda during the Rwandan Civil War in the 1990s, and by numerous participants on both sides of the 1991 Gulf War. In French service, the Gazelle has been supplemented as an attack helicopter by the larger Eurocopter Tiger, but remains in use primarily as a scout helicopter.
Development
The Gazelle originated in a French Army requirement for a lightweight observation helicopter intended to replace the Aérospatiale Alouette III; early on in the aircraft's development, the decision was taken to enlarge the helicopter to enable greater versatility and make it more attractive for the export market. In 1966, Sud Aviation began working on a light observation helicopter to replace its Alouette II with seating for five people.
Early on, the Gazelle attracted British interest, which resulted in a major joint development and production work share agreement between Sud Aviation and Westland. The deal, signed in February 1967, allowed the production in Britain of 292 Gazelles and 48 Sud Aviation SA 330 Puma medium transport helicopters ordered by the British armed forces; in return Sud Aviation was given a work share in the manufacturing programme for the 40 Westland Lynx naval helicopters for the French Navy.
Additionally, Westland would have a 65% work share in the manufacturing, and be a joint partner to Sud Aviation on further refinements and upgrades to the Gazelle. Westland would produce a total of 262 Gazelles of various models, mainly for various branches of the British armed forces, Gazelles for the civil market were also produced.
The first prototype SA 340 flew for the first time on 7 April 1967, it initially flew with a conventional tail rotor taken from the Alouette II. The tail was replaced in early 1968 with the distinctive fenestron tail on the second prototype. Four SA 341 prototypes were flown, including one for British firm Westland Helicopters. On 6 August 1971, the first production Gazelle conducted its first flight. On 13 May 1967, a Gazelle demonstrated its speed capabilities when two separate world speed records were broken on a closed course, achieving speeds of 307 km/h over 3 kilometres and 292 km/h over 100 kilometres.
In service with the French Army Light Aviation (ALAT), the Gazelle is used primarily as an anti-tank gunship (SA 342M) armed with Euromissile HOT missiles. A light support version (SA 341F) equipped with a 20 mm cannon is used as well as anti-air variants carrying the Mistral air-to-air missile (Gazelle Celtic based on the SA 341F, Gazelle Mistral based on the SA 342M). The latest anti-tank and reconnaissance versions carry the Viviane thermal imagery system and so are called Gazelle Viviane. The Gazelle is being replaced in frontline duties by the Eurocopter Tiger, but will continue to be used for light transport and liaison roles.
It also served with all branches of the British armed forces—the Royal Air Force, Royal Navy (including in support of the Royal Marines) and the British Army in a variety of roles. Four versions of the Gazelle were used by the British forces. The SA 341D was designated Gazelle HT.3 in RAF service, equipped as a helicopter pilot trainer (hence HT). The SA 341E was used by the RAF for communications duties and VIP transport as the Gazelle HCC.4. The SA 341C was purchased as the Gazelle HT.2 pilot trainer for the Royal Navy; training variants have been replaced by the Squirrel HT1. The SA 341B was equipped to a specification for the Army Air Corps as the Gazelle AH.1 (from Army Helicopter Mark 1).
The Gazelle proved to be a commercial success, which led Aérospatiale, as Sud Aviation had become, to quickly develop and introduce the SA 342 Gazelle series, which was equipped with uprated powerplants. Licensed production of the type did not just take place in the UK, domestic manufacturing was also conducted by Egyptian firm ABHCO. Yugoslavian production by SOKO reportedly produced a total of 132 Gazelles. As the Gazelle became progressively older, newer combat helicopters were brought into service in the anti-tank role; thus those aircraft previously configured as attack helicopters were often repurposed for other, secondary support duties, such as an Air Observation Post (AOP) for directing artillery fire, airborne forward air controller (ABFAC) to direct ground-attack aircraft, casualty evacuation, liaison, and communications relay missions.
Design
Originally developed as a replacement to Aérospatiale's Alouette helicopter, some aspects of the Gazelle such as its purpose and layout were based on the previous model. The Gazelle featured several important innovations. It was the first helicopter with a fenestron or fantail; this is a shrouded multi-blade anti-torque device housed in the vertical surface of the Gazelle's tail, where it replaces a conventional tail rotor.
The fenestron, while requiring a small increase in power at slow speeds, has advantages such as being considerably less vulnerable to damage, safer for people working around the helicopter and with low power requirements at cruising speeds, and has been described as "far more suitable for high-speed flight". The fenestron is likely to have been one of the key advances that allowed the Gazelle to become the world's fastest helicopter in its class.
The main rotor system was originally based upon the rigid rotor technology developed by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm for the MBB Bo 105; however, due to control problems experienced while at high speeds upon prototype aircraft, the rigid rotor was replaced with a semi-articulated one on production aircraft. The difficulties experienced with the early design of the main rotor was one of the factors contributing to the lengthy development time of the Gazelle. The individual rotor blades were made from composite materials, primarily fiberglass, and had been designed for an extremely long operational lifespan; composite rotor blades would become common on later helicopters. The main rotor maintains a constant speed in normal flight, and is described as having a "wide range of tolerance" for autorotation.
The Gazelle is capable of transporting up to five passengers and up to 1,320 pounds of cargo on the underside cargo hook, or alternatively up to 1,100 pounds of freight in 80 cubic feet of internal space in the rear of the cabin. Armed variants would carry up to four HOT (Haut subsonique Optiquement Téléguidé Tiré d'un Tube) wire-guided anti-tank missiles, or a forward firing 20mm cannon mounted to the fuselage sides with its ammunition supply placed in the cabin.
Various optional equipment can be installed upon the Gazelle, such as fittings for engine noise suppression, 53 gallon ferry tanks, a rescue winch capable of lifting up to 390 pounds, emergency flotation gear, particle filter, high landing skids, cabin heater, adjustable landing lights, and engine anti-icing systems. While the Gazelle had been developed under a military-orientated design programme, following the type's entry to service increasing attention to the commercial market was paid as well. The type was marketed to civil customers; notably, civilian operator Vought Helicopters at one point had a fleet of at least 70 Gazelles. Civil-orientated Gazelles often included an external baggage access door mounted beneath the main cabin.
The Gazelle was the first helicopter to be adapted for single-pilot operations under instrument flight rules. An advanced duplex autopilot system was developed by Honeywell in order to allow the pilot to not be overworked during solo flights; the Gazelle was chosen as the platform to develop this capability as it was one of the faster and more stable helicopters in service at that point and had a reputation for being easy to fly.
The docile flying abilities of the Gazelle are such that it has been reported as being capable of comfortably flying without its main hydraulic system operation at speeds of up to 100 knots. The flight controls are highly responsive; unusually, the Gazelle lacks a throttle or a trimming system. Hydraulic servo boosters are present on all flight control circuits to mitigate control difficulties in the event of equipment failure.
The Gazelle was designed to be easy to maintain, all bearings were life-rated without need for continuous application of lubrication and most fluid reservoirs to be rapidly inspected. The emphasis in the design stage of achieving minimal maintenance requirements contributed towards the helicopter's low running costs; many of the components were designed to have a service life in excess of 700 flying hours, and in some cases 1,200 flight hours, before requiring replacement. Due to the performance of many of the Gazelle's subsystems, features pioneered upon the Gazelle such as the fenestron would appear upon later Aerospatiale designs.
As the Gazelle continued to serve into the 21st century, several major modernisation and upgrade programs were undertaken, commonly adding new avionics to increase the aircraft's capabilities. Aerotec group offered an overhaul package to existing operators, which comprised upgraded ballistic protection, night vision goggles, new munitions including rockets and machine guns, and 3D navigational displays; as of 2013, Egypt is said to be interested in upgrading their domestically built Gazelles.
QinetiQ developed a Direct Voice Input (DVI) system for the Gazelle, the DVI system enables voice control over many aspects of the aircraft, lowering the demands placed upon the crew. In September 2011, QinetiQ and Northrop Grumman proposed outfitting former British Gazelles with autonomous flight management systems derived from the Northrop Grumman MQ-8 Fire Scout, converting them into unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)s to meet a Royal Navy requirement for an unmanned maritime aerial platform.
Operational history
China
During the 1980s, China acquired eight SA 342L combat helicopters; these were the first dedicated attack helicopters to be operated by the People's Liberation Army. The purchase of further aircraft, including licensed production of the aircraft in China, had been under consideration, but this initiative was apparently abandoned following the end of the Cold War. The small fleet was used to develop anti-armour warfare tactics, Gazelles have also been frequently used to simulate hostile forces during military training exercises.
France
The French Army have deployed the Gazelle overseas in many large-scale operations, often in support of international military intervention efforts; including in Chad (in the 1980s), the former Yugoslavia (1990s), Djibouti (1991–1992), Somalia (1993), Cote d'Ivoire (2002–present) and Afghanistan (2002–2021). In 1990–1991, upwards of 50 French Gazelles were deployed as part of France's contribution to coalition forces during the First Gulf War.
During the subsequent military action, known as Operation Desert Storm, HOT-carrying Gazelles were employed by several nations' forces, including Kuwait's air force, against Iraqi military forces occupying neighbouring Kuwait. During the coalition's offensive into Kuwait, French Gazelles adopted a tactic of strafing enemy tanks, vehicles, and bunkers in continuous waves at high speed.
Gazelles have often been dispatched to support and protect UN international missions, such as the 1992 intervention in the Bosnian War. In addition to performing land-based operations, French Gazelles have also been frequently deployed from French naval vessels. In April 2008, witnesses reported up to six French Gazelles reportedly firing rockets upon Somali pirates during a major counter-piracy operation. During the 2011 military intervention in Libya, multiple Gazelles were operated from the French Navy's amphibious assault ship Tonnerre; strikes were launched into Libya against pro-Gadhafi military forces.
Military interventions in African nations, particularly former French colonies, have often been supported by Gazelles in both reconnaissance and attack roles; nations involved in previous engagements include Chad, Djibouti, Somalia, and the Cote d'Ivoire. In April 2011, as part of a UN-mandated campaign in Côte d'Ivoire, four Gazelle attack helicopters, accompanied by two Mil Mi-24 gunships, opened fire upon the compound of rebel president Gbagbo to neutralise heavy weaponry, which led to his surrender. In January 2013, Gazelles were used as gunships in the Opération Serval in Mali, performing raids upon insurgent forces fighting government forces in the north of the country.
In 2016 the Direction générale de l'armement announced that Gazelle helicopters of French Army Aviation could be equipped with the M134 Minigun. This affected the Gazelles of the 4th Special Forces Helicopter Regiment (4ème RHFS).
Iraq
During the Iran–Iraq War fought throughout most of the 1980s, a significant amount of French-built military equipment was purchased by Iraq, including a fleet of 40, HOT-armed Gazelles. Iraq reportedly received roughly 100 Gazelle helicopters. The Gazelle was commonly used in conjunction with Russian-built Mil Mi-24 Hind gunships, and were frequently used in counterattacks against Iranian forces. By 2000, following significant equipment losses resulting from the 1991 Gulf War, Iraq reportedly had only 20 Gazelles left in its inventory.
In 2003, US intelligence officials alleged that a French firm had continued to sell to Iraq spare components for the Gazelle and other, French-built aircraft, via a third-party trading company despite an embargo being in place. Eurocopter, Aerospatiale's successor company, had denied playing any role, stating in 2008 that "no parts have been delivered to Iraq". In April 2009, Iraq, as part of a larger military procurement initiative, bought six Gazelles from France for training purposes.
Syria
Syrian Gazelles were used extensively during the 1982 Lebanon War. In the face of a major Israeli ground advance, repetitive harassment attacks were launched by the Gazelles, which were able to slow their advance. According to author Roger Spiller, panic and a sense of vulnerability quickly spread amongst Israeli tank crews following the first of these Gazelle strikes on 8 June 1982; the range of the Gazelle's HOT missiles being a key factor in its effectiveness. The effectiveness of the Syrian helicopter raids was reduced throughout the month of June as Syrian air defenses were progressively eroded and the Israeli Air Force took aerial supremacy over Eastern Lebanon, thus making operations by attack helicopters increasingly vulnerable. However, Gazelle strikes continued to be successfully performed up to the issuing of a ceasefire.
The 1982 war served to highlight the importance and role of attack helicopters in future conflicts due to their performance on both sides of the conflict. Following the end of the war, the Syrian Army would claim that significant damage had been delivered against Israeli forces, such as the destruction of 30 tanks and 50 other vehicles, against the loss of five helicopters. Israel would claim a loss of seven tanks to the Gazelle strikes and the downing of 12 Syrian Gazelles. Author Kenneth Michael Pollack described the role of Syria's Gazelle helicopters as being "psychologically effective against the Israelis but did little actual damage. Although they employed good Western-style 'pop-up' tactics, the Gazelles were not able to manage more than a few armor kills during the war".
Following the end of the war, Syria increased the size of its attack helicopter fleet from 16 to 50 Gazelles, complemented by a further 50 heavier Mil Mi-24 gunships. Gazelles were also used several times in Syria during its civil war, most recently being seen supporting troops in the Palmyra Offensive using unguided missiles and HOT ATGMs.
Kuwait
During the 1991 Gulf War, roughly 15 Gazelles were able to retreat into neighbouring Saudi Arabia, along with other elements of Kuwait's armed forces, during the invasion of the nation by Iraq. During the subsequent coalition offensive to dislodge Iraqi forces from Kuwait, several of the escaped Kuwaiti Gazelles launched attack missions into occupied Kuwait to destroy Iraqi tanks and other, military targets.
Ecuador
The Gazelle was used by the Ecuadoran Army during the 1995 Cenepa war between Ecuador and neighboring Peru, performing missions such as close air support of ground forces and escorting other helicopters. In 2008, a minor diplomatic spat broke out between Colombia and Ecuador following a reportedly accidental incursion into Colombian airspace by an Ecuadoran Gazelle.
United Kingdom
In 1973, 142 aircraft were on order by the UK, out of a then-intended fleet of 250. No. 660 Squadron AAC, based in Salamanca Barracks, Germany, was the first British Army unit to be equipped with Gazelles, entering operational service on 6 July 1974. The Gazelles, replacements for the Sioux, were assigned the roles of reconnaissance, troop deployment, direction of artillery fire, casualty evacuation and anti-tank operations. In August 1974, 30 were based at CFS Tern Hill for RAF helicopter training.
The Royal Navy's Gazelles entered service in December 1974 with 705 Naval Air Squadron, Culdrose, to provide all-through flying training in preparation for the Westland Lynx's service entry. A total of 23 Gazelles were ordered for Culdrose. Army-owned AH.1s also entered service with 3 Commando Brigade Air Squadron (3 CBAS) of the Royal Marines and later, the Commando Helicopter Force (CHF) of the Fleet Air Arm, where they operated as utility and reconnaissance helicopters in support of the Royal Marines. The 12 Gazelles for 3 CBAS had entered service in 1975, by which time, there were 310 Gazelles on order for the British military.
Gazelles that had replaced the Sioux in RAF Sek Kong towards the end of 1974(?) had been found unsuitable for Hong Kong and, by the end of 1978, had been returned to the UK and they were replaced by the Scout AH1. During its Cold War service period, the Army Gazelles flew over 660,000 hours and had over 1,000 modifications made to the aircraft. From the early 1980s, Army-operated Gazelles were fitted with the Gazelle Observation Aid, a gyro-stabilised sight to match their target finding capability with that of the Lynx. The type also had a limited, special operations aviation role with 8 Flight Army Air Corps
The type was also frequently used to perform airborne patrols in Northern Ireland. On 17 February 1978, a British Army Gazelle crashed near Jonesborough, County Armagh, after coming under fire from the Provisional IRA during a ground skirmish.
During the Falklands War, the Gazelle played a valuable role operating from the flight decks of Royal Navy ships. Under a rapidly performed crash programme specifically for the Falklands conflict, Gazelles were fitted with 68mm SNEB rocket pods and various other optional equipment such as armour plating, flotation gear and folding blade mechanisms.
Two Royal Marines Gazelles were shot down on the first day of the landings at San Carlos Water.
In a high-profile incident of friendly fire on 6 June 1982, an Army Air Corps Gazelle was mistaken for a low-flying Argentine C-130 Hercules and was shot down by HMS Cardiff', a British Type 42 destroyer.
The Gazelle also operated in reconnaissance and liaison roles during the War in Afghanistan. In 2007, it was reported that, while many British helicopters had struggled with the conditions of the Afghan and Iraqi theatres, the Gazelle was the "best performing model" with roughly 80% being available for planned operations.
Various branches of the British military have operated Gazelles in other theatres, such as during the 1991 Gulf War against Iraq and in the 1999 intervention in Kosovo. In 2009, the Army Air Corps was the sole operator of the Gazelle with approximately 40 in service with a planned out of service date in 2012. In October 2009, it was announced that the out of service date had been extended to support domestic commitments including to the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) until 2018 at which point the PSNI was to have their own assets.
In July 2016, the Ministry of Defence announced that the Gazelle would remain in service until 2025 taking the Gazelle past its 50th anniversary in UK military service and making it the oldest helicopter in active UK inventory. The Gazelle is operated by 29 (BATUS) Flight AAC in Canada supporting the Suffield training site, 665 Squadron AAC in Northern Ireland with aerial surveillance tasks and at the Army Aviation Centre by 7 (Training) Regiment AAC Conversion Flight and 667 (Development & Trials) Squadron AAC. In 2018 and 2019, the Ministry of Defence awarded contracts to sustain the fleet until 2022 with the option of an extension in 2025. In 2019, the Army Air Corps had a fleet of 32 Gazelles with 19 in service.
It was announced in January 2022 that the rest of the British Army's Gazelles will be phased out by March 2024 to be replaced by Airbus Helicopters H135.
Yugoslavia
On 27 June 1991, during the Ten Day War in Slovenia, a Yugoslav Air Force Gazelle helicopter was shot down by a man-portable 9K32 Strela-2 surface-to-air missile over Ljubljana, the first aircraft to be lost during the breakup of Yugoslavia. The Gazelles would see further action in the subsequent Yugoslav Wars, particularly in Bosnia where Republika Srpska Air Force conducted many operations with only five Gazelles lost, and the Kosovo War; as Yugoslavia dissolved, the various successor states would inherit the SOKO-built Gazelles and continue to operate them, such as the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbian Air Force and Montenegro Air Force.
Lebanon
In 1980–81, the Lebanese Air Force received from France ten SA 342K/L and SA-341H Gazelles equipped for anti-tank and utility roles, respectively, to equip its newly raised 8th attack squadron at Beirut Air Base. Initially based at the latter location, in 1983 the squadron was relocated north of the Lebanese capital, with the Gazelles being dispersed in small improvised helipads around Jounieh and Adma for security reasons, where one of the helicopters may have been damaged in a failed takeoff. Employed extensively in the gunship role by providing close air support to General Michel Aoun's troops during the final phase of the Lebanese Civil War, combat losses and maintenance problems reduced the Gazelle fleet to just four operational helicopters by 1990, with three of the machines reportedly being apprehended by the Lebanese Forces militia who illegally sold them to Serbia in 1991.
After the War, the Lebanese Air Force Command made consistent efforts to rebuild its attack helicopter squadron with the help of the United Arab Emirates and nine SA 342L Gazelles formerly in service with the United Arab Emirates Air Force were delivered in 2007. Due to budgetary constraints, the majority of the Gazelles operated by the Lebanese Air Force have often been kept in storage outside of times of conflict.
The Gazelles saw combat against the Al Qaeda-inspired Fatah al-Islam militants during the 2007 Lebanon conflict. Rocket-armed Gazelles were used to strike insurgent bunkers during the brief conflict. In 2010, a French government official stated that France had offered to provide up to 100 HOT missiles to Lebanon for the Gazelle helicopters. According to reports, France may also provide additional Gazelles to Lebanon.
Morocco
In January 1981, France and Morocco entered into a $4 billion military procurement deal in which, amongst other vehicles and equipment, 24 Gazelle helicopters were to be delivered to Morocco. The Royal Moroccan Air Force operated these Gazelles, which were equipped with a mix of anti-tank missiles and other ground attack munitions, and made frequent use of the aircraft during battles with Polisario insurgents in the western Sahara region. The reconnaissance capabilities of the Gazelle were instrumental in finding and launching attacks upon insurgent camps due to their mobility.
Rwanda
In 1990, following appeals from Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana for French support in interethnic conflict against the Tutsi Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), nine armed Gazelles were exported to Rwanda in 1992. The Gazelles would see considerable use in the conflict that became known as the Rwandan Civil War, capable of strafing enemy positions as well as performing reconnaissance patrols of Northern Rwanda; in October 1992, a single Gazelle destroyed a column of ten RPF units. According to author Andrew Wallis, the Gazelle gunships helped to stop significant RPF advances and led to a major change in RPF tactics towards guerrilla warfare. In 1994, French forces dispatched as a part of Opération Turquoise, a United Nations-mandated intervention in the conflict, also operated a number of Gazelles in the theatre.
Egypt
As part of a major international initiative formalised in 1975 to build up Arab military industries, Egypt commenced widescale efforts to replace arms imports with domestic production to provide military equipment to the rest of the Middle East, other Arab partner nations included Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Qatar. Both France and Britain would form large agreements with Egypt; in March 1978, the Arab British Helicopter Company (ABHCO) was formally established in a $595 million deal with Westland Helicopters, initially for the purpose of domestically assembly of British Westland Lynx helicopters. An initial order for 42 Gazelles was placed in mid-1975. In the 1980s, ABHCO performed the assembly of a significant number of Gazelles; the British Arab Engine Company also produced engines for Egyptian-build Gazelles.
Variants
SA 340
First prototype, first flown on 7 April 1967 with a conventional Alouette type tail rotor.
SA 341
Four pre-production machines. First flown on 2 August 1968. The third was equipped to British Army requirements and assembled in France as the prototype Gazelle AH.1. This was first flown on 28 April 1970.
SA 341.1001
First French production machine. Initial test flight 6 August 1971. Featured a longer cabin, an enlarged tail unit and an uprated Turbomeca Astazou IIIA engine.
SA 341B (Westland Gazelle AH.1)
Version built for the British Army; Featured the Astazou IIIN2 engine, capable of operating a nightsun searchlight, later fitted with radio location via ARC 340 radio and modified to fire 68mm SNEB rockets. First Westland-assembled version flown on 31 January 1972, this variant entered service on 6 July 1974. A total of 158 were produced. A small number were also operated by the Fleet Air Arm in support of the Royal Marines.
SA 341C (Westland Gazelle HT.2)
Training helicopter version built for British Fleet Air Arm; Features included the Astazou IIIN2 engine, a stability augmentation system and a hoist. First flown on 6 July 1972, this variant entered operational service on 10 December 1974. A total of 30 were produced.
SA 341D (Westland Gazelle HT.3)
Training helicopter version built for British Royal Air Force; Featuring the same engine and stability system as the 341C, this version was first delivered on 16 July 1973. A total of 14 were produced.
SA 341E (Westland Gazelle HCC.4)
Communications helicopter version built for British Royal Air Force; Only one example of this variant was produced.
SA 341F
Version built for the French Army; Featuring the Astazou IIIC engine, 166 of these were produced. Some of these were fitted with an M621 20-mm cannon.
SA 341G
Civil variant, powered by an Astazou IIIA engine. Officially certificated on 7 June 1972; subsequently became first helicopter to obtain single-pilot IFR Cat 1 approval in the US. Also developed into "Stretched Gazelle" with the cabin modified to allow an additional 8 inches (20cm) legroom for the rear passengers.
SA 341H
Military export variant, powered by an Astazou IIIB engine. Built under licence agreement signed on 1 October 1971 by SOKO in Yugoslavia.
SOKO HO-42
Yugoslav-built version of SA 341H.
SOKO HI-42 Hera
Yugoslav-built scout version of SA 341H.
SOKO HS-42
Yugoslav-built medic version of SA 341H.
SOKO HN-42M Gama.
Yugoslav-built attack version of SA 341H. The name is derived from the abbreviation of Gazelle and Malyutka anti-tank missile, Soviet-designed, but locally produced variant of the missile.
SOKO HN-45M Gama 2
Yugoslav-built attack version of SA 342L.
SA 342J
Civil version of SA 342L. This was fitted with the more powerful 649 kW (870 shp) Astazou XIV engine and an improved Fenestron tail rotor. With an increased take-off weight, this variant was approved on 24 April 1976, and entered service in 1977.
SA 342K
Military export version for "hot and dry areas". Fitted with the more powerful 649-kW (870-shp) Astazou XIV engine and shrouds over the air intakes. First flown on 11 May 1973; initially sold to Kuwait.
SA 342L
Military companion of the SA 342J. fitted with the Astazou XIV engine. Adaptable for many armaments and equipment, including six Euromissile HOT anti-tank missiles.
SA 342M
French Army anti-tank version fitted with the Astazou XIV engine. Armed with four Euromissile HOT missiles and a SFIM APX M397 stabilised sight.
SA 342M1
SA 342M retrofitted with three Ecureuil main blades to improve performance.
SA 349
Experimental aircraft, outfitted with stub wings.
Operators
Angolan Air Force
21st Transportation Helicopter Regiment - 1st Helicopter Squadron
22nd Combat Helicopter Regiment - 3rd Helicopter Squadron
:
Bosnian and Herzegovinian Air Force
Burundi Army
Cyprus Air Forces
Ecuadorian Army
Egyptian Air Force
548 Air Wing 10, 15 and 17 Squadrons
French Army
Gabon Air Force
Iraqi Air Force
Kuwait Air Force
Lebanese Air Force
Royal Moroccan Air Force
Qatar Emiri Air Force
Rwandan Air Force
:
Serbian Air Force
Serbian Police
:
Syrian Air Force
:
Tunisian Air Force
Army Air Corps
Retired
People's Liberation Army
Irish Air Corps
:
Republika Srpska Air Force
Montenegrin Air Force
Royal Air Force
Royal Navy
Yugoslav Air Force
Specifications (SA 341G)
Notable appearances in media
Aircraft on display
There are a large number of Gazelles preserved. In the UK, the following Gazelles are in preservation, either in museums or as "gate guards" at various facilities.
XW276 Aerospatiale SA.341 Gazelle, preserved at Newark Air Museum – this aircraft is the prototype Gazelle flown to Britain for evaluation and testing by Westland Helicopters Ltd and the Army Air Corps
XW844 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at Vector Aerospace Fleetlands
XW855 Westland WA.341 Gazelle HCC.4, preserved at RAF Museum Hendon
XW863 Westland WA.341 Gazelle HT.2, preserved at Farnborough Air Sciences Trust
XW890 Westland WA.341 Gazelle HT.2, preserved at RNAS Yeovilton
XX380 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved as a gate guard at Wattisham Airfield
XX381 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at Defence Sixth Form College Welbeck
XX392 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at AAC Middle Wallop
XX411 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at South Yorkshire Air Museum
XX444 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at Wattisham Airfield Museum
XX457 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at East Midlands Aeropark
XZ337 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at MOD Defence Equipment and Support headquarters at Abbey Wood
XZ346 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at AAC Middle Wallop
ZA737 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at Museum of Army Flying, AAC Middle Wallop
ZB670 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at Taunton Army Reserve Centre, home of 675 (The Rifles) Squadron AAC.
ZB672 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at Army Technical Foundation, Winchester
G-SFTA Westland WA.341G Gazelle Srs.1, preserved at North East Aircraft Museum
A further British Gazelle is preserved in Canada:
XZ942 Westland WA.341 Gazelle HT.2, preserved at AAC Suffield
A former Jugoslav Army example is preserved in Slovenia
TO-001 SOKO SA341H Gazelle, c/n 157, ex-JLV '12660', preserved at the Pivka Park of Military History
See also
References
Citations
Bibliography
Cocault Gerald. "A l'assaut du desert". French army (ALAT) in the first Gulf war (1990)
Ashton, Nigel and Bryan Gibson. The Iran-Iraq War: New International Perspectives. Taylor & Francis, 2013. .
Crawford, Stephen. Twenty First Century Military Helicopters: Today's Fighting Gunships. Zenith Imprint, 2003. .
Feiler, Gil. Economic Relations Between Egypt and the Gulf Oil States, 1967–2000: Petro Wealth and Patterns of Influence. Sussex Academic Press, 2003. .
Field, Hugh. "Anglo-French rotary collaboration goes civil." Flight International, 8 February 1973. pp. 193–194.
Hunter, Jane. Israeli Foreign Policy: South Africa and Central America. South End Press, 1987. .
Keucher, Ernest R. "Military assistance and foreign policy". Air Force Institute of Technology, 1989. .
Lowry, Richard. The Gulf War Chronicles: A Military History of the First War with Iraq. iUniverse, 2008. .
McGowen, Stanley S. Helicopters: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. ABC-CLIO, 2005. .
Pollack, Kenneth Michael. Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991. University of Nebraska Press, 2002. .
Ripley, Tim. Conflict in the Balkans: 1991–2000. Osprey Publishing, 2001. .
Spiller, Roger J. Combined arms in battle since 1939. U.S. Army Command and General Staff College Press, 1992. .
Tucker, Spencer S. The Encyclopedia of Middle East Wars: The United States in the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, and Iraq Conflicts. ABC-CLIO, 2010. .
Wallis, Andrew. Silent Accomplice: The Untold Story of France's Role in the Rwandan Genocide. I.B.Tauris, 2006. .
Zoubir, Yahia H. "North Africa in Transition: State, Society, and Economic Transformation in the 1990s". University Press of Florida, 1999. .
External links
Images of Aérospatiale Gazelle on airliners.net
Restoration of XX411 at aeroventure.org.uk
"British and French attack helicopters build strong partnership." – Ministry of Defence, May 2013.
1960s French helicopters
Fantail helicopters
1960s international civil utility aircraft
1960s international military utility aircraft
Aérospatiale aircraft
Gazelle
France–United Kingdom military relations
Single-turbine helicopters
Aircraft first flown in 1967
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356189
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oda%20clan
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Oda clan
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The was a family of Japanese daimyōs who were to become an important political force in the unification of Japan in the mid-16th century. Though they had the climax of their fame under Oda Nobunaga and fell from the spotlight soon after, several branches of the family continued as daimyō houses until the Meiji Restoration.
History
Origins
The Oda family in the time of Nobunaga claimed descent from the Taira clan, by Taira no Chikazane, a grandson of Taira no Shigemori (1138–1179).
Taira no Chikazane established himself at Oda (Echizen Province) and took its name. His descendants, senior retainers of the Shiba clan (Seiwa Genji), shugo (governors) of Echizen, Owari and other provinces, followed the latter to Owari Province and received Inuyama Castle in 1435. This castle was built towards 1435, by Shiba Yoshitake who entrusted its safety to the Oda family. The Oda had been shugo-dai (vice-governor) for several generations.
Independence
In 1452, after the death of Shiba Yoshitake the vassals of the Shiba, like the Oda in Owari Province and the Asakura clan in Echizen Province, refused the succession of Shiba Yoshitoshi (1430–1490) and supported Shiba Yoshikado (died ca. 1480), and began to divide the large domains of their suzerains among themselves, and had become gradually independent in the domains which had been ceded to them. In 1475, the Oda had occupied the greater portion of Owari Province, but the Shiba would continue to try to regain authority until Shiba Yoshikane (1540–1600), who had to leave Owari.
The other famous castle of the Oda is Kiyosu Castle, built between 1394 and 1427 by Shiba Yoshishige who entrusted the castle to the Oda clan, and named Oda Toshisada vice-governor of the province. Toshisada had four sons. The fourth son, Nobusada, who lived in Katsubata Castle, was the father of Nobuhide and the grandfather of Oda Nobunaga.
Nobunaga's reign
Nobuhide took Nagoya Castle in 1525 (it was given to Nobunaga in 1542), and built Furuwatari Castle. Oda Nobutomo held Kiyosu Castle, but he was besieged and killed in 1555 by his nephew Oda Nobunaga who operated from Nagoya Castle. This led to the family being divided into several branches, until the branch led by Oda Nobunaga eclipsed the others and unified its control over Owari.
Then turning to neighboring rivals, it, one by one achieved dominance over the Imagawa, Saitō, Azai, Asakura, Takeda and other clans, until Nobunaga held control over central Japan. However, Nobunaga's plans for national domination were thwarted when he fell victim to the treachery of his vassal Akechi Mitsuhide who forced Nobunaga into suicide during the Incident at Honnō-ji in the summer of 1582. The Oda remained titular overlords of central Japan for a short time, before being surpassed by the family of one of Nobunaga's chief generals, Hashiba Hideyoshi.
Edo period
Though the Oda were effectively eclipsed by Toyotomi Hideyoshi following Nobunaga's death, it is not often known that the Oda continued to be a presence in Japanese politics. One branch of the family became hatamoto retainers to the Tokugawa shōgun, while other branches became minor daimyō lords. As of the end of the Edo period, these included Tendō Domain (also known as Takahata Domain, Dewa Province, 20,000 koku), Yanagimoto han (Yamato Province, 10,000 koku), Kaiju han (also known as Shibamura han; Yamato Province, 10,000 koku), and Kaibara han (Tanba Province, 20,000 koku).
During the reign of the daimyō Nobutoshi, the Oda of Tendō Domain were signatories to the pact that created the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei.
Descendants
Descendants of the Oda Clan can be found throughout Japan, mainly in the south and southwest.
Notable figures
Oda Chikazane (ca. 13th century)
Oda Nobuhide (1510–1551)
Oda Nobuhiro (died 1574)
Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582)
Oda Nobuyuki (1536–1557)
Oichi (1547–1583)
Oda Nobukane (1548–1614)
Oda Nagamasu (1548–1622)
Oda Nobuharu (1549–1570)
Oda Nobuzumi (1555–1583)
Oda Nobutada (1557–1582)
Oda Nobutaka (1558–1583)
Oda Nobukatsu (1558–1630)
Hashiba Hidekatsu (羽柴 秀勝, 1567–1593)
Oda Katsunaga (1568–1582)
Oda Hidekatsu (織田 秀雄, 1583–1610)
Oda Hidenobu (1580–1605)
Oda Nobutoshi (1853–1901)
Notable Ladies
Lady Otsuya
Tokuhime (Oda)
Kitsuno
Nōhime
Dota Gozen
Oda retainer families
Senior retainer families
Hirate clan
Takigawa clan
Sakuma clan
Fuwa clan
Hayashi clan
Shibata clan
Niwa clan
Maeda clan
Sassa clan
Notable retainer families
Akechi clan
Hashiba clan
Tokugawa clan
Nobunaga's notable retainers
Senior retainers in Owari Province
Hirate Masahide
Hayashi Hidesada
Murai Sadakatsu
Kawajiri Hidetaka
Mizuno Nobumoto
Sakuma Nobumori
Shibata Katsuie
Takigawa Kazumasu
Mori Yoshinari
Sakai Masahisa
Niwa Nagahide
Ikeda Tsuneoki
Sassa Narimasa
Maeda Toshiie
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
Hachisuka Masakatsu
Hori Hidemasa
Sakuma Morimasa
Yamauchi Katsutoyo
Hasegawa Hidekazu
Naitō Shōsuke
Harada Naomasa
Yanada Masatsuna
Ōta Gyūichi
Iio Sadamune
Others
Takenaka Hanbei
Kuroda Yoshitaka
Akechi Mitsuhide
Ujiie Bokuzen
Inaba Yoshimichi
Andō Morinari
Matsunaga Hisahide
Kuki Yoshitaka
Kani Saizō
Kanamori Nagachika
Gamō Katahide
Gamō Ujisato
Mori Ranmaru
Asakura Kageakira
Fuwa Mitsuharu
Araki Murashige
Hirate Kiyohide
Hosokawa Fujitaka
Ikeda Nobuteru
Ikoma Ienaga
Maeda Gen'i
Tokugawa Ieyasu
Others (cont.)
Murai Sadakatsu
Nakagawa Kiyohide
Takayama Ukon
Tsutsui Junkei
Wada Koremasa
Yamauchi Kazutoyo
Asano Nagamasa
Hachisuka Hikoemon
Ishida Mitsunari
Murai Nagato
Tsutsui Junkei
Sakon Shima
Kuroda Kanbei
Yamanuchi Katsutoyo
Horio Mosuke
Kitabatake Toshikatsu
Maeno Suemon
Tōdō Takatora
Akada Shigeyoshi
Akada Shigetaka
Aochi Shigetsuna
Atagi Nobuyasu
Chō Tsuratatsu
Others (cont.)
Endō Taneshige
Fukutomi Hidekatsu
Gotō Takaharu
Hachiya Yoritaka
Hatakeyama Sadamasa
Hayashi Shinjiro
Hirate Norihide
Horiuchi Ujiyoshi
Ikai Nobusada
Inaba Masashige
Kaganoi Shigemochi
Kanemitsu Masayoshi
Katō Yoshiaki
Kawajiri Hidetaka
Kotsokuri Tomomasa
Kyōgoku Takatsugu
Maeba Yoshitsugu
Maeda Toshiharu
Maeno Nagayasu
Mikumo Shigemochi
Takigawa Kazumasu
Sakuma Nobumori
Clan castles
Castles of Nobunaga's Residence
Nagoya Castle
Kiyosu Castle
Komakiyama Castle
Gifu Castle
Azuchi Castle
Prominent castles and commanders
Tamaru Castle : Oda Nobukatsu
Nagahama Castle : Hashiba Hideyoshi
Sakamoto Castle : Akechi Mitsuhide
Fukuchiyama Castle : Akechi clan
Kameyama Castle : Akechi clan
Kuroi Castle : Akechi clan (Saitō Toshimitsu)
Shōryūji Castle : Hosokawa Fujitaka
Sawayama Castle : Niwa Nagahide
Maebashi Castle : Takigawa Kazumasu
Shigisan Castle : Matsunaga Hisahide
References
Information on the Oda clan's background
Japanese clans
Daimyo
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356192
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oda%20Nagamasu
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Oda Nagamasu
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was a Japanese daimyō and a brother of Oda Nobunaga who lived from the late Sengoku period through the early Edo period. Also known as or , the Tokyo neighborhood Yūrakuchō is named for him. Nagamasu converted to Christianity in 1588 and took the baptismal name of John.
Biography
His childhood name was Gengorō (源五郎) and he was the 11th son of Oda Nobuhide. In 1574, he received the Chita district in Owari and the construction of Ōkusa Castle. Later, he was commissioned to serve Oda Nobutada. Nagamasu was an accomplished practitioner of the Japanese tea ceremony, which he studied under the master, Sen no Rikyū. He eventually started his own school of the tea ceremony.
In 1582, during the incident at Honnō-ji, he was one of the vassals of Nobutada in Nijō Castle, he was able to survive and fled to Gifu Castle.
In 1584, he then joined Oda Nobukatsu and collaborated with Tokugawa Ieyasu against Hideyoshi at the Komaki - Nagakute campaign and battled against Takigawa Kazumasu at the Siege of Kanie Castle. Later, he was one of the peacemakers between Tokugawa Ieyasu and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, also with Sassa Narimasa and Maeda Toshiie.
In 1600, he sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu and fought at the Battle of Sekigahara. He brought 450 soldiers to join Ieyasu and confronted Gamō Yorisato (Satoie).
Nagamasu divided his fief between his sons Oda Nagamasa and Hisanaga. Nagamasa founded the Kaijū-Shibamura Domain, while Hisanaga became lord of the Yanagimoto Domain.
Family
Father: Oda Nobuhide (1510–1551)
Brothers
Oda Nobuhiro (died 1574)
Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582)
Oda Nobuyuki (1536–1557)
Oda Nobukane (1548–1614)
Oda Nobuharu (1549–1570)
Oda Nobutoki (died 1556)
Oda Nobuoki
Oda Hidetaka (died 1555)
Oda Hidenari
Oda Nobuteru
Oda Nagatoshi
Sisters:
Oichi (1547–1583)
Oinu
Son:
Oda Nagamasa (1587–1670)
References
1548 births
1622 deaths
Converts to Roman Catholicism
Japanese artists
Japanese Roman Catholics
Oda clan
Japanese tea masters
Daimyo
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356194
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege%20of%20Odani%20Castle
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Siege of Odani Castle
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The 1573 was the last stand of the Azai clan, one of Oda Nobunaga's chief opponents.
Nobunaga took Odani Castle from Azai Nagamasa, who, left with no other option, committed suicide along with his father. Azai knew from the beginning that he would lose the battle, so he gave his wife Oichi (Nobunaga's sister), and their three daughters back to Nobunaga, saving them from death. Two of Nagamasa's daughters would later marry into powerful families. Their escape from the besieged castle became a fairly common sentimental scene in traditional Japanese art.
Before Azai Nagamasa committed seppuku he decided to make one last attack on Nobunaga's main camp; in the end, however, he failed and was instead captured.
In popular culture
The battle has been featured in the game Samurai Warriors 2. In the game, however, both the Azai and Asakura clans are destroyed during the Odani siege. Historically, the Asakura clan was destroyed before the Azai at the Battle of Ichijodani.
References
1573 in Japan
Odani 1573
Odani 1573
Conflicts in 1573
Odani Castle
Odani Castle
Azai clan
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356195
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guiyang
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Guiyang
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Guiyang (; ; Mandarin pronunciation: ), historically rendered as Kweiyang is the capital of Guizhou province of the People's Republic of China. It is located in the center of the province, situated on the east of the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau, and on the north bank of the Nanming River, a branch of the Wu River. The city has an elevation of about . It has an area of . At the 2018 estimation, its population was 4,881,900, out of whom 3,474,000 lived in the six urban districts.
A city with humid subtropical climate, Guiyang is surrounded by mountains and forest. The area, inhabited since at least the Spring and Autumn period, formally became the capital of the surrounding province in 1413, during the Yuan dynasty. The city is home to a large Miao and Bouyei ethnic minority population. Guiyang has a diversified economy, traditionally a center for aluminum production, phosphate mining, and optical instrument manufacturing. Following reforms, the majority of the city's economic output in the services sector. Since 2015, it has seen targeted investments into big data and quickly emerged as a local innovation hub.
Guiyang is one of the top 500 science cities in the world by scientific research outputs, as tracked by the Nature Index. The city is also home to Guizhou University, a national research university under the Project 211 and under the Double First Class Status in certain disciplines.
History
The valley approximating present-day Guiyang has been inhabited since the Spring and Autumn period. Guiyang was a 7th-century military outpost under the Sui and Tang, when the area around it was known as Juzhou (). It grew into a city named Shunyuan () under the Mongolian Yuan dynasty sometime between their 1279 southwestern campaigns and 1283. By the time Guizhou became a full province in 1413, its capital at Guiyang was also known as Guizhou. It became a prefectural seat under the Ming and Qing. Guiyang grew rapidly during the development of the southwest that occurred after the Japanese invasion of China during World War II. It has also grown rapidly since Deng Xiaoping's economic reforms reached it in the 1990s.
Geography
The city's heart is around the Dashizi (), a "big cross", and Penshuichi (, literally "Fountain Pool"), a traffic intersection, in the center of which there was a large fountain until early 2010, when it was paved over for better traffic.
Climate
Guiyang has a four-season, monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cwa), tempered by its low latitude and high elevation. It has cool winters and moderate-temperature summers; the majority of the year's of precipitation occurs from May to July. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from in January to in July, while the annual mean is . Rain is common throughout the year, with occasional flurries in winter. With monthly possible sunshine ranging from 12% in January to 41% in August, the city receives only 1150 hours of sunshine, making it one of China's least sunny major cities. Average monthly relative humidity is consistently above 75% throughout the year.
The moderate temperature together with other factors including air quality, wind speed, etc. made Guiyang to be ranked No.2 in the "Top 10 Summer Capitals of China".
Administrative divisions
The entire Guiyang municipality currently consists of six districts, one county-level city and three counties. The districts are Nanming, Yunyan, Huaxi, Wudang, Baiyun and Guanshanhu. The county-city is Qingzhen and the counties are Kaiyang, Xifeng and Xiuwen. The Gui'an New District, a non-administrative economic project, is situated to the southwest of Guiyang. It crosses over into areas under the jurisdiction of the neighboring city of Anshun.
Economy
Guiyang is the economic and commercial hub of Guizhou Province. In 2017, GDP for the Guiyang region totaled 353.8 billion yuan, with per capita GDP of 74,493 yuan ($10,720); the local economy is growing at the approximate pace of 10% per year. The city is also a large center for retail and wholesale commercial activities with operations of major domestic and international general retailers such as Wal-Mart, Carrefour, RT-Mart, Beijing Hualian, Parkson, and Xingli Group () as well as consumer electronics and appliance sellers Gome and Suning. Wholesale operations include large regional produce, furniture, and industrial and construction machinery depots. Wal-Mart's southwest China regional vegetable and produce distribution center is located in Guiyang. Foreign brands have penetrated Guiyang rapidly, including McDonald's, Burger King, H&M, and Starbucks. Most of the time, they are located near the various shopping centers. The largest shopping centers are Hunter city plaza (), Huaguoyuan Shopping Center (), and Nanguohuajing ().
Hydro-electric power generators are located along the city's main rivers including the Wu River. By 2007, the city's hydro electric plants supplied over 70% of the city's electricity. Coal is mined in the locality of Guiyang and Anshun, and there are large thermal generating plants at Guiyang and Duyun, supplying electricity for a portion of the city's industry. A large iron and steel plant came into production in Guiyang in 1960, supplying the local machinery-manufacturing industry.
Guiyang has a sizable domestic pharmaceuticals industry, producing traditional Chinese as well as Western medicines. Guiyang has also completed the first stage of city-wide free WiFi.
In 2016, Guiyang was named as the Best-Performing City in China by the Milken Institute owing to the city's "growth in jobs, wages, gross domestic product (GDP)." Guizhou Province saw the third-fastest growth among China's 31 regional districts in the first half of the year, growing by 10.5%. This growth is attributed to Guiyang's investments in computing and big data. Due to tax incentives and state support, multinational corporations such as Foxconn, Microsoft, Huawei, Hyundai Motor, Tencent, Qualcomm and Alibaba have opened offices in Guiyang.
Demographics
Guiyang is populated by 23 different minorities, the most populous of which is the Miao people and ethnic Han.
, the total population of Guiyang municipality was 4.3 million, among which 2.9 million were urban residents.
Culture
Language
Besides ethnic minority languages such as Miao and Bouyei, the people of Guiyang speak a variety of Southwestern Mandarin. It differs from common Mandarin for the retroflex sounds it lacks. Compared to Mandarin which has five tones (four and a non-stressed tone), Guiyang's local language only has three tones. Many old characters from ancient China are still used within Guiyang's language, which sound like Korean or Japanese. For example, "" (to go) is pronounced as “kèi”, fourth tone, instead of the Mandarin pronunciation “qù” and 做（to do） is pronounced as “zo”， fourth tone，rather than the Mandarin pronunciation "zuo".
Cuisine
Provinces in China are known for the different specialities they offer, and Guiyang is most known for its spicy food as well as the following dishes:
Gaoba porridge (), a sweet dessert.
Fish in sour soup (), a Miao dish with roasted fish and various vegetables.
Huangba (), a sweet wrap made of rice that can be steamed or fried
Huaxi Vermicelli (), a dish that consists of beef vermicelli, that is frequently eaten as a breakfast in Guiyang.
Siwawa (), a dish that can be vegetarian or a mix of pork scraps and vegetables, where the ingredients are enclosed in rice wraps.
Ice jelly with sesame seeds and peanuts (), usually eaten in summer, with siwawa or barbecue
Intestines and blood noodles (), made up with pig's intestines and pig's blood.
Qingyan's pig's feet (), mostly found in the old town of Qingyan, pig's feet symbolize good luck.
Tourism
Being the capital of Guizhou, a very old and traditional province of China, Guiyang is shaped by its history, and still possesses many historical sites that attract many tourists:
The Jiaxiu Pavilion (): The Jiaxiu Pavilion is located in the southern tip of the Guiyang Nanming River, which is the city's emblem and its symbol. It was built during the Ming Dynasty and has more than 400 years of history.
Qingyan Ancient Town (): Qingyan Ancient Town is located in the southern tip of Guiyang. It was originally built in the year 1378, during the Ming Dynasty. It is known its beautiful Chinese ancient architecture.
Xifeng Concentration Camp (): Xifeng Concentration Camp was the largest, highest-level prison of all the prisons set up by the Military commission of the KMT government during the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and it was added by the state council to the list of major historical and cultural sites under state protection, in 1988.
Confucian Center (): the Confucian center is a non-public and educational organization affiliated with the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. The Confucius Institute promotes and teaches Chinese culture and language around the world. The Confucian Temple, in the center of Qufu city, was built in 478 BC.
Xifeng Hot Spring (): Xifeng Hot Spring is located in the northeast of Xifeng County. The hot spring is surrounded by many mountains, upon which rich slopes grow a profusion of pines, firs, bamboos and other plants. This beautiful place has offered its advantages for sanatoriums, hospitals and villas.
Qianling Park (): Qianling Park, in the northwest part of Guiyang, takes its name from Mount Qianling, which is known as southern Guizhou's most majestic mountain. The park is covered with thick vegetation and old trees, with more than 1,500 types of flowers and trees, and at least 1,000 types of Medicinal herbs. The Hongfu Temple, built toward the end of the Ming dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, is one of Guizhou's most famous temples.
Huaxi National Wetland Park (): Guiyang Huaxi national urban wetland Park is located in the north of downtown Guiyang's Huaxi district. It is one of the only urban Wetlands in the country. On the environmental aspect, it belongs to a subtropical humid climate of the plateau karst hilly region, based on Karst landform characteristics of the urban wetland park, its unique geographical location and geological structure form a rich variety of landscapes resources.
Nightlife
Pubs and bars
Most of the young people in Guiyang go out in the evening, after 10 pm. Their major activity is to go to bars, where they often indulge in drinking. The most dynamic street in Guiyang is Qianling Donglu (), unironically called "Drinking Street," for the diversity and great numbers of pubs and bars that occupy it. In the province where Moutai comes from, an internationally well-known liquor, drinking tends to be a tradition. In Guiyang, beers are poured in small cups, and games – with dice or cards - are often necessary in order to drink.
Night markets
When the night comes, street food flourishes everywhere in Guiyang, with its barbecue, grills and roasts. On Shaanxi Lu (), one can find mutton chops, baked snail, roast chicken. On Bo'ai Lu () mutton patties, beef pounder, glutinous rice, noodle rice, combine western and eastern food. On Xiaoshizi (), the crispy fried duck.
Night gaming traditions
At night, the elderly usually prefer to indulge in outdoor games, games that are often quite ancient:
Mahjong: a game made of bamboo, bone or plastics, each mahjong set consisting 136 tiles (about 3000 years old).
Spinning top: A game mostly played by old men in public squares, that consists in whipping, with a cable, a kind of spinning top.
Square dancing: middle aged and elderly people dance in the square to relax or exercise.
Transport
Transportation in Guiyang consists of an extensive network of roads, railways, river and air transport as well as public transportation system with bus system and many taxis.
Air
Guiyang is one of the important air transport hubs in Southwest China. Guiyang's main airport is the Guiyang Longdongbao International Airport (KWE) opened on May 28, 1997. It is located in east of Guiyang, away from the city center. The airport is connected to national and international destinations, such as Hong Kong, Taipei, Seoul (Charter), Phuket (Charter), Singapore (Charter), Bangkok, Taichung and Taitung (Charter), Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Chengdu. In 2017, the airport handled over 18 million passengers; this is a three-fold increase in passenger traffic from 2010.
Metro
Guiyang Metro began construction in 2011. Line 1 began operation in December 2017. Line 2 began operation in April 2021.
Railway
Guiyang is a railway hub in southwest China. The Guizhou–Guangxi Railway (built in 1959, modified 2009), the Sichuan–Guizhou Railway (completed 1965), the Guiyang–Kunming Railway (completed 1970), and the Hunan–Guizhou Railway (completed 1975) intersect at Guiyang Railway Station. This main southern railway station was rebuilt in 2008.
Since 2008, the city has seen rapid development of high-speed rail. The Guiyang–Guangzhou High-Speed Railway, Shanghai–Kunming high-speed railway and Chongqing–Guiyang high-speed railway began operations in quick succession. The explosion of high-speed rail development has dramatically decreased travel times to nearly all first-tier Chinese cities, including Beijing (8 hours), Shanghai (9 hours), Guangzhou (4.5 hours), Chengdu (4 hours) and Chongqing (~2 hours). The high speed railway lines provide rapid freight service from two rail yards, and passenger service from Guiyang North railway station, in the city's Guanshanhu District.
Expressway
The city is located at the junction of four major segments of the national highway grid: the Gui–Huang, Gui–Zun, Gui–Bi, and Gui–Xin Expressways. The Gui-Huang Expressway (G60) links Guiyang with the cities and tourist areas of central and western Guizhou including Anshun, Guanling, and the Huangguoshu Waterfall. The expressway continues west to Yunnan Province as the Gui-Kun Expressway and terminates at Yunnan's capital city of Kunming. G75 Lanzhou–Haikou Expressway runs north to Zunyi and is the most heavily travelled major highway in Guiyang. In Zunyi, the expressway becomes the Zunyi-Chongqing Expressway and runs a further north to Chongqing. G76 Xiamen–Chengdu Expressway links Guiyang with the regional cities of Bijie and Dafang in northwest Guizhou province, southeastern Sichuan province, and the Sichuan cities of Luzhou, Neijiang, and Chengdu—Sichuan's provincial capital. The Gui–Bi Expressway begins at an interchange with the Gui–Zun Expressway in the city's Xiuwen County approximately north of the city center, before terminating at the city of Bijie. In the city of Dafang, approximately east of Bijie, the Gui–Bi Expressway connects with the new Sichuan–Guizhou Expressway, a modern highway providing access to Luzhou and central Sichuan. The Gui–Xin Expressway begins at the junction of the Guiyang Outer Ring Road (G75, G60.01) and the Tang Ba Guan Road, approximately southeast of the city center. The Gui–Xin Expressway (G60, G75) runs east and southeast through the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (G76), passing through Guilin, before entering Guangdong, and terminating at Guangzhou. Approximately east of Guiyang in the regional city of Kaili, the Hunan-Guizhou Expressway (G56, G60) links with the Gui–Xin Expressway providing high-speed vehicular access to and from Guiyang to the eastern Guizhou city of Tongren before continuing through Hunan to the major cities of Huaihua, Changde, and Changsha. The China National Highway 210 also runs through Guiyang via Xifeng and Longli.
In 2009 Guiyang added a modern orbital expressway to its highway network. The Guiyang Outer Ring Road (Guiyang Orbital Highway) opened in December 2009 and is a six- to eight-lane divided high-speed expressway that provides efficient links to and from large employment centers in the Jinyang New District, Baiyun District, Huaxi District, the Guiyang Longdongbao International Airport, the major multi-lane national highways, and the city's main roadways, allowing vehicular traffic to circumnavigate the heavy traffic of the city's inner city areas.
Education
The city has a university, a teacher-training college, a medical school, and 224 primary and middle schools.
Guizhou University
Guizhou Normal University
Guizhou Medical University
Guizhou University of Finance and Economics
Guizhou Nationalities University
Guizhou Institute of Technology
Guiyang College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
Religion
On October 15, 1696, the city was made the seat of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Vicariate of Kweichow. This was suppressed in 1715 and restored in 1846. In 1924 it was renamed as the Apostolic Vicariate of Guiyang, and in 1946 it was promoted to its current status as the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Guiyang.
Gallery
See also
List of twin towns and sister cities in China
References
External links
Guiyang Government website
Guiyang Government website
Photos of Guiyang
1283 establishments in Asia
13th-century establishments in China
Cities in Guizhou
Provincial capitals in China
Prefecture-level divisions of Guizhou
National Forest Cities in China
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356198
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oga%20Yashiro
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Oga Yashiro
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Oga Yashiro is a traitor who offered to let Takeda Katsuyori into the Tokugawa-controlled castle at Okazaki. His plot was discovered and he died by the bamboo saw after 7 days.
References
Samurai
Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
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356199
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okazaki%20Castle
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Okazaki Castle
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is a Japanese castle located in Okazaki, Aichi Prefecture, Japan. At the end of the Edo period, Okazaki Castle was home to the Honda clan, daimyō of Okazaki Domain, but the castle is better known for its association with Tokugawa Ieyasu and the Tokugawa clan. The castle was also known as .
History
Saigo Tsugiyori built an earthen-walled fortification in the Myodaiji area of Okazaki, near the present castle in 1455. Matsudaira Kiyoyasu, after gaining control of the area in 1524, demolished the old fortification and built Okazaki Castle on its present location. His famous grandson Matsudaira Motoyasu (later named Tokugawa Ieyasu) was born here on December 16, 1542. The Matsudaira were defeated by the Imagawa clan in 1549, and Ieyasu was taken to Sunpu Castle as a hostage. Following the defeat of the Imagawa at the Battle of Okehazama, Ieyasu regained possession of the castle in 1560 and left his eldest son Matsudaira Nobuyasu in charge when he moved to Hamamatsu Castle in 1570. After Oda Nobunaga ordered Nobuyasu’s death in 1579, the Honda clan served as castellans. Following the relocation of the Tokugawa to Edo after the Battle of Odawara by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the castle was given to Tanaka Yoshimasa, who substantially improved on its fortifications, expanded the castle town and developed Okazaki-juku on the Tōkaidō.
Following the creation of the Tokugawa shogunate, Okazaki Domain was created, and Ieyasu’s close retainer Honda Yasushige was assigned possession of the castle. A three-story donjon was completed in 1617. The Honda were replaced by the Mizuno clan from 1645-1762, and the Matsudaira (Matsui) clan from 1762-1769. In 1769, a branch of the Honda clan returned to Okazaki, and governed until the Meiji Restoration.
In 1869, the final daimyō of Okazaki Domain, Honda Tadanao, surrendered Okazaki Castle to the new Meiji government. With the abolition of the han system in 1871, Okazaki Domain became part of Nukata Prefecture, with Okazaki Castle used as the prefectural headquarters. However, Nukata Prefecture was merged into Aichi Prefecture in 1872, and the capital of the prefecture was moved to Nagoya. In accordance with government directives in 1873, the castle was demolished, and most of its land sold off to private individuals.
The current donjon was reconstructed in 1959 to boost local tourism. In 2006, it was proclaimed one of the 100 Fine Castles of Japan. The ferroconcrete structure has three roofs and five interior floors, and contains exhibits of artifacts from the original castle, Japanese swords, armor and dioramas illustrating local history. The Main Gate of the castle was reconstructed in 1993, and the east corner yagura in 2010.
In 2007, construction work near the castle revealed stonework from the castle’s outer baileys, lending evidence to the claim that Okazaki Castle was once the fourth largest in Japan.
The area around the castle is now a park, with a museum dedicated to the life of Tokugawa Ieyasu and the Mikawa samurai, teahouses, a Noh theater, a small clock tower with traditional karakuri puppets, and an impressive main gate. The park is also renowned as a famous site for viewing cherry blossoms, wisteria and azalea.
Pictures
Literature
External links
JNTO home page
Okazaki Castle Jcastle Profile
Okazaki Castle home page
Japan Castle Explorer
Notes
Castles in Aichi Prefecture
Museums in Aichi Prefecture
History museums in Japan
100 Fine Castles of Japan
Okazaki, Aichi
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356200
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muller%27s%20ratchet
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Muller's ratchet
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In evolutionary genetics, Muller's ratchet (named after Hermann Joseph Muller, by analogy with a ratchet effect) is a process through which, in the absence of recombination (especially in an asexual population), an accumulation of irreversible deleterious mutations results. This happens due to the fact that in the absence of recombination, and assuming reverse mutations are rare, offspring bear at least as much mutational load as their parents. Muller proposed this mechanism as one reason why sexual reproduction may be favored over asexual reproduction, as sexual organisms benefit from recombination and consequent elimination of deleterious mutations. The negative effect of accumulating irreversible deleterious mutations may not be prevalent in organisms which, while they reproduce asexually, also undergo other forms of recombination. This effect has also been observed in those regions of the genomes of sexual organisms that do not undergo recombination.
Etymology
Although Muller discussed the advantages of sexual reproduction in his 1932 talk, it does not contain the word "ratchet". Muller first introduced the term "ratchet" in his 1964 paper, and the phrase "Muller's ratchet" was coined by Joe Felsenstein in his 1974 paper, "The Evolutionary Advantage of Recombination".
Explanation
Asexual reproduction compels genomes to be inherited as indivisible blocks so that once the least mutated genomes in an asexual population begin to carry at least one deleterious mutation, no genomes with fewer such mutations can be expected to be found in future generations (except as a result of back mutation). This results in an eventual accumulation of mutations known as genetic load. In theory, the genetic load carried by asexual populations eventually becomes so great that the population goes extinct. Also, laboratory experiments have confirmed the existence of the ratchet and the consequent extinction of populations in many organisms (under intense drift and when recombinations are not allowed) including RNA viruses, bacteria, and eukaryotes. In sexual populations, the process of genetic recombination allows the genomes of the offspring to be different from the genomes of the parents. In particular, progeny (offspring) genomes with fewer mutations can be generated from more highly mutated parental genomes by putting together mutation-free portions of parental chromosomes. Also, purifying selection, to some extent, unburdens a loaded population when recombination results in different combinations of mutations.
Among protists and prokaryotes, a plethora of supposedly asexual organisms exists. More and more are being shown to exchange genetic information through a variety of mechanisms. In contrast, the genomes of mitochondria and chloroplasts do not recombine and would undergo Muller's ratchet were they not as small as they are (see Birdsell and Wills [pp. 93–95]). Indeed, the probability that the least mutated genomes in an asexual population end up carrying at least one (additional) mutation depends heavily on the genomic mutation rate and this increases more or less linearly with the size of the genome (more accurately, with the number of base pairs present in active genes). However, reductions in genome size, especially in parasites and symbionts, can also be caused by direct selection to get rid of genes that have become unnecessary. Therefore, a smaller genome is not a sure indication of the action of Muller's ratchet.
In sexually reproducing organisms, nonrecombining chromosomes or chromosomal regions such as the mammalian Y chromosome (with the exception of multicopy sequences which do engage intrachromosomal recombination and gene conversion) should also be subject to the effects of Muller's ratchet. Such nonrecombining sequences tend to shrink and evolve quickly. However, this fast evolution might also be due to these sequences' inability to repair DNA damage via template-assisted repair, which is equivalent to an increase in the mutation rate for these sequences. Ascribing cases of genome shrinkage or fast evolution to Muller's ratchet alone is not easy.
Muller's ratchet relies on genetic drift, and turns faster in smaller populations because in such populations deleterious mutations have a better chance of fixation. Therefore, it sets the limits to the maximum size of asexual genomes and to the long-term evolutionary continuity of asexual lineages. However, some asexual lineages are thought to be quite ancient; Bdelloid rotifers, for example, appear to have been asexual for nearly 40 million years. However, rotifers were found to possess a substantial number of foreign genes from possible horizontal gene transfer events. Furthermore, a vertebrate fish, Poecilia formosa, seems to defy the ratchet effect, having existed for 500,000 generations. This has been explained by maintenance of genomic diversity through parental introgression and a high level of heterozygosity resulting from the hybrid origin of this species.
Calculation of the fittest class
In 1978 John Haigh used a Wright-Fisher model to analyze the effect of Muller's ratchet in an asexual population. If the ratchet is operating the fittest class (least loaded individuals) is small and prone to extinction by the effect of genetic drift. In his paper Haigh derives the equation that calculates the frequency of individuals carrying mutations for the population with stationary distribution:
where, is the number of individual carrying mutations, is the population size, is the mutation rate and is the selection coefficient.
Thus, the frequency of the individuals of the fittest class () is:
In an asexual population which suffers from ratchet the frequency of fittest individuals would be small, and go extinct after few generations. This is called a click of the ratchet. Following each click, the rate of accumulation of deleterious mutation would increase, and ultimately results in the extinction of the population.
The antiquity of recombination and Muller's ratchet
It has been argued that recombination was an evolutionary development as ancient as life on Earth. Early RNA replicators capable of recombination may have been the ancestral sexual source from which asexual lineages could periodically emerge. Recombination in the early sexual lineages may have provided a means for coping with genome damage. Muller's ratchet under such ancient conditions would likely have impeded the evolutionary persistence of the asexual lineages that were unable to undergo recombination.
Muller's ratchet and mutational meltdown
Since deleterious mutations are harmful by definition, accumulation of them would result in loss of individuals and a smaller population size. Small populations are more susceptible to the ratchet effect and more deleterious mutations would be fixed as a result of genetic drift. This creates a positive feedback loop which accelerates extinction of small asexual populations. This phenomenon has been called mutational meltdown.
See also
Evolution of sexual reproduction
Genetic hitchhiking
Hill-Robertson effect
References
External links
xkcd webcomic explaining Muller's ratchet and recombination through the evolution of Internet memes
Evolutionary biology concepts
Genetics concepts
Population genetics
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356201
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Okehazama
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Battle of Okehazama
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The took place in June 1560 in Owari Province, located in today's Aichi Prefecture. In this battle, the heavily outnumbered Oda clan troops commanded by Oda Nobunaga defeated Imagawa Yoshimoto and established himself as one of the front-running warlords in the Sengoku period.
Background
In 1560, Imagawa Yoshimoto, a powerful warlord who controlled Suruga, Tōtōmi, and Mikawa Provinces amassed an army of 25,000 men to march on Kyoto to challenge the increasingly weak and ineffective Ashikaga shogunate for control of the country. The army followed the route of the Tōkaidō highway, and crossed from Mikawa into Owari province, which had recently been united by local warlord Oda Nobunaga. The Imagawa forces quickly overran the border fortresses of Washizu, Matsudaira forces led by Matsudaira Motoyasu took Marune fortress, and Yoshimoto set up camp at Dengakuhazama, located in the village of Okehazama, just outside of what is now the city of Nagoya. In opposition, Oda Nobunaga could field only about 2000-3000 men, or roughly one-tenth of the Imagawa army. Although some of his staff recommended withdrawing to the Oda stronghold of Kiyosu Castle, Nobunaga was aware that Kiyosu would not be able to withstand a siege, and instead stated that "only a strong offensive policy could make up for the superior numbers of the enemy", and ordered a counterattack.
The geography of the area in which the Imagawa set up their camp was well known to Nobunaga and his scouts, as they had often used the area for war games in the guise of falconry hunts.
The evening before the attack, Nobunaga gathered his men, telling them that to wait would be suicide, and that it be best to attack the enemy head on, before sending them home to rest. He awoke early next morning, dressed, recited a passage from the song “Atsumori”, intoning that “Man has but 50 years, and life is but a dream,” he donned his armor and wolfed down a bowl of rice porridge while still standing and departed.
Battle
Nobunaga led his men in person from Kiyosu via Atsuta Shrine to a fortified temple called Zenshō-ji, a short distance away from Okehama, on the other side of the Tōkaidō road.
In order to bluff any Imagawa scouts, Nobunaga ordered his men to set up numerous flags and banners around the Zenshō-ji to give the appearance of a much larger force.
The actual sequence of events of the Battle of Okehazama has been much embellished by legend and is historically unclear. Traditionally it has been held that due to the vast discrepancy in numbers, on June 12, Nobunaga and his men secreted themselves into position in an area known as Kamagatani on the other side of the Imagawa’s main camp, the Oda forces made a flanking maneuver and attacked the Imagawa army at Dengaku-hazama from the north. However, due to familiarity of the Oda forces with the terrain and Nobunaga's propensity for aggressive tactics, many modern historians theorize that the attack was actually a frontal assault on Yoshimoto's camp, either by design or by accident.
In any event, the Imagawa army was caught by surprise. The Imagawa were celebrating their recent easy victories, and as the afternoon was very hot, many had removed their armor. Using a thunderstorm to mask their movements, the Oda troops struck hard at the heart of the Imagawa camp, which was in a narrow valley. The surprise attack caused a panic and the Imagawa troops broke ranks and many attempted to flee.
Imagawa Yoshimoto, unaware of what was transpiring, heard the noise and emerged from his tent shouting at his men to quit their drunken revelry and return to their posts. By the time he realized, moments later, that the samurai before him were not his own, it was too late to organize a defense. Yoshimoto was not, as is popularly believed, killed in his war camp. Yoshimoto and his men quickly abandoned their camp and fled to where the fighting took place.
Yoshimoto was attacked by Mōri Shinsuke and Hattori Koheita. Yoshimoto, Munenobu, and Naomori engaged them in melee, and parried their initial attack. Yoshimoto is said to have fought off one attack by the spear wielding Mori Shinsuke, cutting through the Oda samurai’s spear, and into the man’s knee. He was then tackled by a second Oda samurai, Hattori Koheita, who promptly took the generals’ head.
With their leader and all but two of the senior officers killed, the remaining Imagawa troops either surrendered or fled.
Aftermath
The Battle of Okehazama is regarded as one of the most significant turning points in Japanese history. The Imagawa clan was greatly weakened and would soon be destroyed by its neighbors. Oda Nobunaga gained greatly in prestige, and many samurai and minor warlords (including Imagawa's former retainer, Matsudaira Motoyasu, the future Tokugawa Ieyasu) pledged fealty.
This battle was the first time Nobunaga noticed the talents of the sandal-bearer Kinoshita Tōkichirō, who would eventually become Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
National Historic Site
In 1937, Japan's Ministry of Education designated the battlefield, Okehazama Kosenjō, a National Historic Site of Japan. Located at Minamiyakata, Sakae-cho, Toyoake City, the site hosts The Shichikokuhyo, or Seven Granite Pillars, with each pillar representing Yoshimoto's seven warlords. The first of the pillars bears the words, "Imagawa Yoshimoto was killed here."
The battlefield is now a park.
References
Further reading
De Lange, William. Samurai Battles: The Long Road to Unification. Toyp Press (2020)
Paterson, Les, The Battle of Okehazama, Jetlag Pressure (2008)
Grant, R.G. 1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History Chartwell Bookk (2017)
External links
Aichi Prefecture Tourist Information
Toyoake City home page
1560 in Japan
Okehazama 1560
Okehazama
Okehazama
Toyoake, Aichi
Owari Province
Historic Sites of Japan
Imagawa clan
Oda clan
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356203
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oki%20Province
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Oki Province
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was a province of Japan consisted of the Oki Islands in the Sea of Japan, located off the coast of the provinces of Izumo and Hōki. The area is now Oki District in modern Shimane Prefecture. Its abbreviated form name was ,
Oki is classified as one of the provinces of the San'indō. Under the Engishiki classification system, Oki was ranked as an "inferior country" (下国) and a "far country" (遠国).
History
The Oki Islands have been settled since the Japanese Paleolithic period, and numerous remains from the Jōmon, Yayoi and Kofun periods indicates continuous human occupation and activity. It was organized as a province under the Ritsuryō reforms in the later half of the seventh century, and the name "Oki-no-kuni" appears on wooden markers found in the imperial capital of Nara.
During the late Heian period, due to its remoteness, Oki Province came to known as a place for political exile. In 1221, Emperor Go-Toba was sent to Oki, and died in exile on the islands; In 1332, Emperor Go-Daigo was also sent in exile to Oki, but later managed to escape and regain control of the country.
From the Kamakura period Oki Province was governed primarily by the shugo of Izumo Province. In the Muromachi period, it was ruled successively by the Sasaki clan, the Yamana clan and the Kyōgoku clan. In the Sengoku period the Amago clan held this province. After the Amago fell and the Tokugawa shogunate was established, Oki Province was declared a tenryō dominion under the direct control of the shōgun. The daimyō of Matsue Domain, belonging to the Matsudaira clan, was appointed governor.
The entire province had an assessed revenue of only 18,000 koku, although its actual revenues were closer to only 12,000 koku. The province was a frequent port of call for the Kitamaebune coastal trading ships during the Edo period.
The exact location of the capital of the province is not known, but is believed to have been somewhere within Suki District on Dōgojima, within the borders of the modern town of Okinoshima. The Kokubun-ji still exists as a Shingon sect temple in Okinoshima, and the foundation stones of many of the original buildings can be found within its grounds, although a complete archaeological investigation has yet to be performed.
There are two Shinto shrines which claim the title of Ichinomiya of the province. The in Okinoshima, and the in Nishinoshima.
Following the Meiji Restoration, Oki Province became Oki Prefecture from February to June 1869. It was then attached to Tottori Prefecture until 1876, when it was transferred to Shimane Prefecture.
Historical districts
Oki Province was originally divided into four districts. All of the districts were merged into Oki District (隠岐郡) on April 1, 1969.
Shimane Prefecture
Ama District (海士郡)
Chibu District (知夫郡)
Ōchi District (穏地郡)
Suki District (周吉郡)
Notes
References
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128
Papinot, Edmond. (1910). Historical and Geographic Dictionary of Japan. Tokyo: Librarie Sansaisha. OCLC 77691250
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691
External links
Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Oki Islands
History of Shimane Prefecture
Former provinces of Japan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okudaira%20Nobumasa
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Okudaira Nobumasa
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was a Japanese daimyō of the Sengoku and early Edo periods. Nobumasa's family considered their origins to have been associated with Mikawa Province. The clan was descended through the Akamatsu from the Murakami-Genji.
Early life
When Nobumasa was born, he was called Sadamasa (奥平 貞昌). He was the son of Okudaira Sadayoshi, an influential local figure in Mikawa. The Okudaira family were originally retainers of the Tokugawa, but were forced to join Takeda Shingen. After Shingen died and Katsuyori assumed leadership of the Takeda clan, Okudaira Sadamasa walked his men out of Tsukude Castle and rejoined the Tokugawa.
Katsuyori had Sadamasa's wife and brother – hostages to the Takeda – crucified for what the Takeda construed as betrayal.
Nagashino castle
Tokugawa allowed Nobumasa to marry his eldest daughter, Kamehime ; and he was given Nagashino Castle.
Sadamasa was entrusted with the defense of Nagashino Castle by Tokugawa Ieyasu.
Sadamasa's decision to remove himself and his forces from the Takeda supporters became one of the antecedents of the Battle of Nagashino in 1575. Katsuyori was enraged at Sadamasa's decision to leave the Takeda forces. Nagashino Castle was attacked by Katsuyori with a force of 15,000 troops; but Sadamasa held firm, repelling the Takeda siege until forces of a Tokugawa-Oda alliance eventually arrived to support the beleaguered Okudaira. Oda Nobunaga was so impressed by the Okudaira's performance in the battle that he offered Sadamasa the honor of adopting part of his name—Nobu. After the battle was won, the hardy warrior was changed from Sadamasa to Nobumasa.
Later life
In 1590, Nobumasa was given a fief in Miyazaki, Kōzuke.
Nobumasa served as the first Kyoto shoshidai of the Edo period. When Nobumasa completed his service as Kyoto shoshidai in 1601, he was transferred to Kanō Domain in Mino Province. He built Kanō Castle in Gifu, Gifu Prefecture, and commissioned the building of Kanō Tenman-gū.
Daihannya sword
The name ("Daihannya") refers to the Daihannya sutra, made by Junkei Nagamitsu. The sword is in the possession of Oda Nobunaga who gave it to Tokugawa Ieyasu at the Battle of Anegawa, who then gave it to Okudaira Sadamasa at the Battle of Nagashino. The value of the sword during the Muromachi period, 600 kan, was associated with the sutra's 600 volumes; said to have belonged to the Ashikaga clan.
Notes
References
Meyer, Eva-Maria. (1999). Japans Kaiserhof in de Edo-Zeit: Unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Jahre 1846 bis 1867. Münster: Tagenbuch.
Murdoch, James. (1996). A History of Japan. London: Routledge.
Papinot, Edmond. (1906) Dictionnaire d'histoire et de géographie du japon. Tokyo: Librarie Sansaisha...Click link for digitized 1906 Nobiliaire du japon (2003)
Sasaki Suguru. (2002). Boshin sensō: haisha no Meiji ishin. Tokyo: Chūōkōron-shinsha.
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Kyoto Shoshidai
Okudaira clan
1555 births
1615 deaths
Fudai daimyo
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356206
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanson%20Arahata
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Kanson Arahata
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a.k.a. was a 20th-century Japanese labor leader, politician and writer, participating in many of the left-wing movements of the era.
References
Japan: An Illustrated Encyclopedia, Kodansha, 1993, v. 1, p. 45.
1887 births
1981 deaths
Members of the House of Representatives from Tokyo
People from Yokohama
Members of the House of Representatives (Empire of Japan)
Social Democratic Party (Japan) politicians
Japanese Communist Party politicians
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356207
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shire%20of%20Burdekin
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Shire of Burdekin
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The Shire of Burdekin is a local government area located in North Queensland, Australia in the Dry Tropics region. The district is located between Townsville and Bowen in the delta of the Burdekin River.
It covers an area of , and has existed as a local government entity since 1888.
History
Yuru (also known as Juru, Euronbba, Juru, Mal Mal, Malmal) is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken on Yuru country. The Yuru language region includes the landscape within the local government boundaries of the Shire of Burdekin, including the town of Home Hill.
On 16 January 1888, the Ayr Division was created out of Subdivision 3 of the Thuringowa Division in 1888 under the Divisional Boards Act 1887.
With the passage of the Local Authorities Act 1902, Ayr Division became the Shire of Ayr on 31 March 1903.
On 12 June 1982, the Shire of Ayr was renamed the Shire of Burdekin, a change long desired by the residents of Home Hill.
Council members were elected to represent different divisions within the shire until the election of March 1994 at which all council members are elected by all shire residents. The title of Mayor replaced the former title of Shire Chairman and the title of Shire Clerk was replaced by Chief Executive Officer from that same election.
New shire chambers were opened on 9 October 1999. The cost was $2.8 million.
From 2000, council elections were held every four years to elect a mayor and ten councillors. From 2008, this was reduced to a mayor and six councillors.
Facilities
The public library headquarters of the Burdekin Shire Council Library Services is located at 108 Graham Street, Ayr. The Burdekin Shire also operate a public library in Home Hill at 77-79 Ninth Avenue. Both libraries opened in 1984.
Towns and localities
The Shire of Burdekin includes the following settlements:
Airdmillan
Airville
Alva
Ayr
Barratta
Brandon
Carstairs
Clare
Colevale
Cromarty
Dalbeg
Eight Mile Creek
Fredericksfield
Giru
Groper Creek
Home Hill
Horseshoe Lagoon
Inkerman
Jarvisfield
Jerona
Kalamia
Kirknie
Maidavale
Majors Creek
McDesme
Millaroo
Mona Park
Mount Kelly
Mount Surround
Mulgrave
Osborne
Parkside
Rangemore
Rita Island
Shirbourne
Swans Lagoon
Upper Haughton
Wangaratta
Wunjunga
Population
Chairmen and mayors
References
Local government areas of Queensland
1888 establishments in Australia
North Queensland
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356208
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Cno%20River
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Ōno River
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The is a river that originates in Ōita Prefecture, Japan. After running through the southern and central portions of Ōita Prefecture, it runs through the eastern part of Kumamoto Prefecture and the northern part of Miyazaki Prefecture.
The Hakusui Dam, constructed in 1938, stands on the river.
References
External links
(mouth)
Rivers of Kumamoto Prefecture
Rivers of Ōita Prefecture
Rivers of Miyazaki Prefecture
Rivers of Japan
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356210
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onogawa
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Onogawa
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Onogawa may refer to:
Onogawa Kisaburō, the 5th Yokozuna in sumo
Kitataiki Akeyoshi, sumo wrestler with the elder name Onogawa
Ōno River, a river that begins in Ōita Prefecture, Japan
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356213
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20logicians
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List of logicians
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A logician is a person who studies logic. Some famous logicians are listed below in English alphabetical transliteration order (by surname).
A
Peter Abelard (France, 1079–1142)
Wilhelm Ackermann (Germany, 1896–1962)
Sergei Adian (Russia/Soviet Union/Armenia, 1931–2020)
Rodolphus Agricola (Germany, 1443/1444–1485)
Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz (Poland, 1890–1963)
Alcuin (England/France, c. 735–804)
Alan Ross Anderson (US, 1924–1972)
Peter B. Andrews (US, born 1938)
Thomas Aquinas (Italy/France, 1225–1274)
Lennart Åqvist (Sweden, born 1932)
Aristotle (Greece, 384–322 BCE)
Heiric of Auxerre (France, 841–876)
B
Bahmanyār (Iran, died 1067)
Jayanta Bhatta (India, 850–910)
Alexander Bain (UK, 1818–1903)
Yehoshua Bar-Hillel (Israel, 1915–1975)
Ruth Barcan Marcus (US, 1921–2012)
Henk Barendregt (Netherlands, born 1947)
Jon Barwise (US, 1942–2000)
James Earl Baumgartner (US, 1943–2011)
John Lane Bell (UK and Canada, born 1945)
Nuel Belnap (US, born 1931)
Paul Benacerraf (US, born 1931)
Jean Paul Van Bendegem (Belgium, born 1953)
Johan van Benthem (Netherlands, born 1949)
Paul Bernays (Switzerland, 1888–1977)
Evert Willem Beth (Netherlands, 1908–1964)
Jean-Yves Béziau (Switzerland, born 1965)
Józef Maria Bocheński (Poland, 1902–1995)
Boethius (Rome/Ostrogothic Kingdom, c. 480–524/525)
Bernard Bolzano (Austrian Empire, 1781–1848)
Andrea Bonomi (Italy, born 1940)
George Boole (England/Ireland, 1815–1864)
George Boolos (US, 1940–1996)
Nicolas Bourbaki (pseudonym used by a group of French mathematicians, 20th century)
Thomas Bradwardine (England, c. 1290–26 August 1349)
Richard Brinkley (England, died c. 1379)
Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer (Netherlands, 1881–1966)
Alan Richard Bundy (UK, born 1947)
Franco Burgersdijk (Netherlands, 1590–1629)
Jean Buridan (France, c. 1300–post 1358)
Walter Burley (England, c. 1275–1344/5)
C
Chanakya (India, Mouryan Empire, 371–285 BC)
Georg Ferdinand Cantor (Germany, 1845–1918)
Rudolf Carnap (Germany, 1891–1970)
Lewis Carroll (UK, 1832–1898)
Categoriae decem (Latin, fifth century)
Gregory Chaitin (Argentina/US, born 1947)
Chrysippus (Greece, c. 280 BC – c. 207 BC)
Alonzo Church (US, 1903–1995)
Leon Chwistek (Poland, 1884–1944)
Gordon H. Clark (US, 1902–1985)
Paul Joseph Cohen (US, 1934–2007)
Conimbricenses, name by which Jesuits of the University of Coimbra (Portugal) were known (1591–1606)
S. Barry Cooper (UK, 1943–2015)
Jack Copeland (UK, born 1950)
Thierry Coquand (France, born 1961)
John Corcoran (US, 1937–2021)
Newton da Costa (Brazil, born 1929)
William Craig (US, 1918–2016)
Haskell Curry (US, 1900–1982)
Tadeusz Czeżowski (Poland, 1889–1981)
D
Dirk van Dalen (Netherlands, born 1932)
Martin Davis (US, born 1928)
Augustus De Morgan (UK, 1806–1871)
René Descartes (France, 1596–1650)
Dharmakirti (India, c. 7th century)
Dignāga (India, fl. 5th century)
Diodorus Cronus (Greece, 4th–3rd century BC)
Martin Dorp (Netherlands, c. 1485–1525)
John Dumbleton (England, died c. 1349)
Michael A. E. Dummett (UK, 1925–2011)
Jon Michael Dunn (US, 1941–2021)
E
Alexander Esenin-Volpin (Russia, 1924–2016)
John Etchemendy (US, born 1952)
Leonhard Euler (Switzerland, 1707–1783)
F
Solomon Feferman (US, 1928–2016)
Richard Ferrybridge (England, 14th century)
Hartry Field (US, born 1946)
Kit Fine (US, born 1946)
Melvin Fitting (US, born 1942)
Graeme Forbes (Scotland, 20th century)
Matthew Foreman (US, born 1957)
Michael Fourman (UK, born 1950)
Roland Fraïssé (France, 1920–2008)
Abraham Fraenkel (Germany, 1891–1965)
Gottlob Frege (Germany, 1848–1925)
Harvey Friedman (US, born 1948)
G
Dov Gabbay (UK, born 1945)
Haim Gaifman (US, born 1934)
L. T. F. Gamut (collective pseudonym used by a group of Dutch logicians, fl. 1980s–1990s)
Robin Gandy (UK, 1919–1995)
Sol Garfunkel (US, born 1943)
Garlandus Compotista (France, c. 11th century)
Akṣapāda Gautama, author of Nyāya Sūtras and founder of Nyaya school of thought and logic (India, c. 2nd century BC)
Gangesha Upadhyaya, author of Tattvacintāmaṇi (A Thought-Jewel of truth) and founder of Navya-Nyāya (India, c. 14th century CE)
Peter Geach (UK, 1916–2013)
Gerhard Gentzen (Germany, 1909–1945)
Joseph Diaz Gergonne (France, 1771–1859)
Gilbert de la Porrée (France, 1070–1154)
Jean-Yves Girard (France, born 1947)
Kurt Gödel (Austria, US, 1906–1978)
Reuben Louis Goodstein (England, 1912–1985)
Valentin Goranko (Bulgaria/Sweden, born 1959)
Siegfried Gottwald (Germany, 1943–2015)
Jeroen Groenendijk (Netherlands, born 1949)
H
Susan Haack (UK, born 1945)
Petr Hájek (Czech Republic, 1941–2016)
Leo Harrington (US, born 1946)
Robert S. Hartman (Germany/US, 1910–1973)
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (Germany, 1770–1831)
Jean Van Heijenoort (France/US, 1912–1986)
Leon Henkin (US, 1921–2006)
Jacques Herbrand (France, 1908–1931)
Arend Heyting (Netherlands, 1898–1980)
David Hilbert (Germany, 1862–1943)
Jaakko Hintikka (Finland, 1929–2015)
Alfred Horn (US, 1918–2001)
William Alvin Howard (US, born 1926)
Ehud Hrushovski (Israel, born 1959)
Gérard Huet (France, born 1947)
I
Ibn Taymiyyah (Turkey, 1263–1328 CE)
Marsilius of Inghen (Netherlands/France/Germany, 1330/1340–1396)
J
Giorgi Japaridze (Georgia, 20th century)
Stanisław Jaśkowski (Poland, 1906–1965)
Richard Jeffrey (US, 1926–2002)
Ronald Jensen (US, Europe, born 1936)
William Stanley Jevons (England, 1835–1882)
John of St. Thomas/John Poinsot (Portugal/Spain, 1589–1644)
William Ernest Johnson (UK, 1858–1931)
Dick de Jongh (Netherlands, born 1939)
Bjarni Jónsson (Iceland, 1920–2016)
Philip Jourdain (UK, 1879–1919)
Joachim Jungius (Germany, 1587–1657)
Jñanasrimitra (India, 10th century)
K
David Kaplan (US, born 1933)
Alexander S. Kechris (US, born 1946)
Howard Jerome Keisler (US, born 1936)
Ahmed Raza Khan (India, 1856–1921)
Richard Kilvington (England, c. 1305–1361)
Robert Kilwardby (England, c. 1215–1279)
Stephen Cole Kleene (US, 1909–1994)
Tadeusz Kotarbiński (Poland, 1886–1981)
Robert Kowalski (US, UK, born 1941)
Georg Kreisel (Austria/Britain/US, 1923–2015)
Saul Kripke (US, born 1940)
Leopold Kronecker (Germany, 1823–1891)
Kenneth Kunen (US, 1943–2020)
L
Christine Ladd-Franklin (US, 1847–1930)
Joachim Lambek (Canada, 1922–2014)
Johann Heinrich Lambert (France/Germany, 1728–1777)
Karel Lambert (US, born 1928)
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (Germany, 1646–1716)
Stanisław Leśniewski (Poland, 1886–1939)
Clarence Irving Lewis (US, 1883–1964)
David Kellogg Lewis (US, 1941–2001)
Adolf Lindenbaum (Poland, 1904–1941)
Per Lindström (Sweden, 1936–2009)
Ramon Llull (Spain, 1232–1315)
Martin Löb (Germany, 1921–2006)
Paul Lorenzen (Germany, 1915–1994)
Jerzy Łoś (Poland, 1920–1998)
Hermann Lotze (Germany, 1817–1881)
Leopold Löwenheim (Germany, 1878–1957)
Jan Łukasiewicz (Poland, 1878–1956)
M
Hugh MacColl (Scotland, 1837–1909)
Saunders Mac Lane (US, 1909–2005)
Dugald Macpherson (UK, 20th century)
Penelope Maddy (US, born 1950)
John Mair (Scotland, 1467–1550)
David Makinson (Australia, UK, born 1941)
Isaac Malitz (US, born 1947)
María Manzano(Spain, born 1950)
Gary R. Mar (US, born 1952)
Ruth Barcan Marcus (US, 1921–2012)
Donald A. Martin (US, born 1940)
Richard Milton Martin (US, 1916–1985)
Per Martin-Löf (Sweden, born 1942)
Yuri Matiyasevich (Russia/Soviet Union, born 1947)
C. A. Meredith (Ireland, 1904–1976)
Bob Meyer (US, 1932–2009)
John Stuart Mill (England, 1806–1873)
Grigori Mints (Soviet Union/Estonia/US, 1939–2014)
Richard Montague (US, 1930–1971)
Yiannis N. Moschovakis (US, born 1938)
Andrzej Mostowski (Poland, 1913–1975)
N
Pavel Naumov (Soviet Union/Russia/US, born 1970)
Sara Negri (Italy/Finland, born 1967)
Edward Nelson (US, 1932–2014)
John von Neumann (Hungary, US, 1903–1957)
John Henry Newman (1801–1890) (see article: Grammar of Assent)
Jean Nicod (France, 1893–1924)
Pyotr Novikov (Russia/Soviet Union, 1901–1975)
Nagarjuna (India, c.150–c.250)
Anil Nerode (US, born 1932)
O
William of Ockham (England, 1285–1349)
Piergiorgio Odifreddi (Italy, born 1950)
Ivan Orlov (Russia, 1886–1936)
P
John Pagus (France, fl. 1220–1229)
Jeff Paris (UK, born 1944)
Charles Parsons (US, born 1933)
Solomon Passy (Bulgaria, born 1956)
Paul of Venice (Italy, 1369–1429)
Christine Paulin-Mohring (France, born 1962)
Giuseppe Peano (Italy, 1858–1932)
Dan Pedersen (US, born, 1945)
Charles Sanders Peirce (US, 1839–1914)
Lorenzo Peña (Spain, born 1944)
Chaïm Perelman (Poland, Belgium, 1912–1984)
Rózsa Péter (Hungary, 1905–1977)
Paolo da Pergola (Italy, died 1455)
Peter of Spain (13th century, usually assumed to be Pope John XXI)
Philo the Dialectician (Greece, 4th–3rd century BC)
Walter Pitts (US, 1923–1969)
Porphyry (c. 234–c. 305)
Henry Pogorzelski (US, Polish American parents, 1922–2015)
Emil Leon Post (US, 1897–1954)
Dag Prawitz (Sweden, born 1936)
Mojżesz Presburger (Poland, 1904–1943)
Graham Priest (Australia, born 1948)
Arthur Prior (New Zealand, UK, 1914–1969)
Hilary Putnam (US, 1926–2016)
Plato (Greek, 427–347 B.C.)
Q
Willard Van Orman Quine (US, 1908–2000)
R
Michael O. Rabin (Israel, US, born 1931)
Constantin Rădulescu-Motru (Romania, 1868–1957)
Frank Plumpton Ramsey (UK, 1903–1930)
Petrus Ramus (France, 1515–1572)
Helena Rasiowa (Poland, 1917–1994)
Carveth Read (UK, 1848–1931)
Abraham Robinson (Israel, UK, Canada, US, 1918–1974)
Raphael M. Robinson (US, 1911–1995)
Julia Robinson (US, 1919–1985)
J. Barkley Rosser (US, 1907–1989)
Richard Routley, later Richard Sylvan (New Zealand, 1935–1996)
Frederick Rowbottom (UK, 1938–2009)
Ian Rumfitt (UK, 20th century)
Bertrand Russell (UK, 1872–1970)
S
Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri (Italy, 1667–1733)
Raghunatha Siromani (India, c. 1477–1547)
Gerald Sacks (US, 1933–2019)
Albert of Saxony (Germany, c. 1316–1390)
Rolf Schock (US, Sweden, 1933–1986)
Moses Schönfinkel (USSR, 1889–1942)
Ernst Schröder (Germany, 1841–1902)
Kurt Schütte (Germany, 1909–1998)
Dana Scott (US, born 1932)
Sedulius Scottus (Ireland/France, fl. 840–860)
John Duns Scotus (UK, France, c. 1266–1308)
Stewart Shapiro (US, born 1951)
Fyodor Shcherbatskoy (Russia, 1866–1942)
Saharon Shelah (Israel, born 1945)
Gila Sher (Israel/US)
William of Sherwood (England, 1190–1249)
Hui Shi (China, fl. 4th century BC)
Simplicius of Cilicia (Turkey/Iran, c. 490–c. 560)
Raghunatha Siromani (India, 1470s–1550s)
Thoralf Skolem (Norway 1887–1963)
Dimiter Skordev (Bulgaria, born 1936)
Theodore Slaman (US, born 1954)
Raymond Smullyan (US, 1919–2017)
William of Soissons (France, 12th century)
Robert M. Solovay (US, born 1938)
Richard the Sophister (fl. late 13th century)
Peter of Spain (13th century)
Mr. Spock (Vulcan, born 23rd century)
John R. Steel (US, born 1948)
Martin Stokhof (Netherlands, born 1950)
Ralph Strode (England, fl. 1350–1400)
Richard Swineshead (England, fl. c. 1340–1354)
Richard Sylvan, born Richard Routley (New Zealand, 1935–1996)
T
Gaisi Takeuti (Japan, 1926–2017)
Alfred Tarski (Poland, 1902–1983)
Theophrastus (Greece, 371–c. 287 BC)
Pavel Tichý (Czechoslovakia, New Zealand, 1936–1994)
Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg (Germany, 1802–1872)
Anne Sjerp Troelstra (Netherlands, 1939–2019)
Alan Turing (UK, 1912–1954)
Kazimierz Twardowski (Poland, 1866–1938)
U
Udayana , author of Nyayakusumanjali (rational theology to prove the existense of God using logic) (India, 10th century)
Udyotakara (India, c. 6th century CE)
Alasdair Urquhart (UK, born 1945)
Vladimir Uspensky (Soviet Union/Russia, 1930–2018)
V
Lorenzo Valla (Italy, c. 1407–1457)
Moshe Y. Vardi (Israel, born 1954)
Nicolai A. Vasiliev (Russia, 1880–1940)
Robert Lawson Vaught (US, 1926–2002)
Paul of Venice (Italy, 1368–1428)
John Venn (England, 1834–1923)
Juan Luis Vives (Spain, 1493–1540)
Pakṣilasvāmin Vātsyāyana wrote the first known commentary on Goutama's Nyaya Sutras (5th century CE)
W
Hao Wang (China/US, 1921–1995)
Isaac Watts (England, 1674–1748)
Richard Whately (England, 1787–1863)
Alfred North Whitehead (UK, 1861–1947)
Ludwig Wittgenstein (Austria, UK, 1889–1951)
Christian Wolff (Germany, 1679–1754)
W. Hugh Woodin (US, born 1955)
John Woods (Canada, born 1937)
Georg Henrik von Wright (Finland, UK, 1916–2003)
X
Y
Jin Yuelin (China, 1895–1984)
Z
Jacopo Zabarella (Italy, 1533–1589)
Lotfi A. Zadeh (US, 1921–2017)
Ernst Zermelo (Germany, 1871–1953)
Alexander Zinoviev (Soviet Union, 1922–2006)
References
External links
The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive - very complete list of detailed biographies. Many logicians are included.
A Selection of Great Logicians with detailed bibliographies (in progress)
Logicians
Logicians
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356215
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Csugi%20Sakae
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Ōsugi Sakae
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was a radical Japanese anarchist. He published numerous anarchist periodicals, helped translate western anarchist essays into Japanese for the first time, and created Japan's first Esperanto school in 1906. He, Itō Noe, and his nephew were murdered in what became known as the Amakasu incident.
Biography
Childhood
Ōsugi Sakae was born on January 17, 1885, in Marugame, Kagawa, according to his autobiography, Jijōden. The Ōsugi family registry misrepresents his date of birth by several months, leading to some confusion in other reports. He was the eldest son of Kusui Yutaka and Japanese military captain Ōsugi Azuma. Little is known of his siblings except for the youngest, Ayame. She was married to Tachibana Sōsaburō and moved to Portland, Oregon; their son Munekazu would be the third victim of the Amakasu Incident in 1923.
In his early teens, Ōsugi enlisted in Cadet School but was a poorly motivated, rebellious student. He was reprimanded often and nearly expelled more than once. On one occasion it was implied that he took part in illicit homosexual behavior with a younger cadet; he was held in the school stockade for 10 days for this and received 30 days of confinement. Later he participated in a knife fight; fighting unarmed, fearing he'd injure his opponent, he received injuries which required a fortnight's hospitalization. After this incident he was finally expelled.
Interest in socialism and Christianity
In 1903 he eventually decided to attain higher education in French Literature at the Tokyo School of Foreign Languages (the present-day Tokyo University of Foreign Studies), with the encouragement of a childhood friend, Rei, advice from an associate of his father, Lieutenant Morioka, and the blessings of his parents. While in school he experienced independent living for the first time and began associations that would last years and lead to his experimental phase in Christianity and socialism. He graduated from the school in 1905.
After his mother's death, he became depressed and redirected his energies into his studies. He began to read large numbers of books—only a handful of which he counted as having made an impression on him later in life—primarily works by Gorky, Turgenev, Tolstoy, and Dostoevsky. He later wrote that he'd been most influenced by Oka Asajirō's Discourse on Evolution:
My interest in natural science was awakened first by this book. At the same time, the theory of evolution, holding that all things change, cried out for the reformation of various social systems which remained as authorities deep within my mind, and made it extremely easy to associate myself with the tenets of socialism.
His depression over his mother's death also led him to search for a spiritual outlet in Christianity. He attended several churches, never fully accepted the miracles of the faith, and "believed that God is something within the self". He was eventually baptised when others assured him he would understand the religion more if he did, but he later wrote that he was never fully satisfied.
He began to involve himself in socialism more at this time, mostly because of exposure to the most radical newspaper available in Tokyo: Yorozu Chōhō. He would further involve himself in the socialist movement when Kōtoku Shūsui and Sakai Toshihiko formed the Commoners' Society (Heimin-sha). He began to write letters to the editor of this organization's paper, the Heimin Shimbun (Common People's Newspaper), and hand out the paper in public. When the Heimin Shimbun folded, his first article, "Socialism and patriotism" (Shakaishugi to aikokushugi), was published in another radical paper, Hikari, in August–September 1905. However, his participation with socialism was largely superficial at this time, and he admitted later that he did so largely because he felt the need to take part in a paper he often read.
Later exposure to criticisms of Christianity from prominent socialists led him to question his faith, but it was not until the onset of the Russo-Japanese War that he fully cut his ties to the religion. When his local church began to merge its sermons with patriotic and pro-war sentiments, he felt this was a betrayal of his spiritual principles and left permanently.
Anarchism and the high treason incident
Ōsugi still held military aspirations as a matter of practicality, since he had no other career ambitions. But a military career became impossible in 1906, when he was arrested during a demonstration-turned-riot against increasing trolley fares. In prison he took the time to fully study socialism and its tenets, and completed his transition to socialist. His interest in science would lay the groundwork for his eventual shift to anarchism. He also taught himself languages including Italian, Esperanto, Russian, English, French, and German.
His initial prison sentences were due to separate instances of activist-related activity. After the aforementioned trolley-fare protest riot, he was arrested for violating press laws in connection with two articles he published in late 1906 and early 1907. He served two more terms in 1908 for violating the Peace Police Law on two occasions, the early-1908 Rooftop Incident (Yane-jō jiken) and the late-1908 Red Flag Incident (Akahata jiken).
While in prison, Kōtoku, now an avowed anarchist, encouraged him to research the work of Mikhail Bakunin and Peter Kropotkin. Ōsugi was particularly receptive to Kropotkin's scientific approach to anarchy, and he translated Kropotkin's autobiography in 1920.
His arrest as part of the Red Flag Incident handed him his heaviest prison term, but it saved him and others convicted at the time from being associated with the High Treason Incident (Taigyaku Jiken) of 1910. At the trials, twelve anarchists, including Kōtoku Shūsui and one of the few anarchists found not guilty during the Red Flag trials, were found guilty of conspiracy to assassinate the Emperor and were sentenced to death. Ōsugi encountered the defendants in prison but was afraid to speak to them too loudly. Kōtoku, nearly deaf, was unable to hear him. Ōsugi also encountered their executioner, who retired after their executions.
After this experience, he never challenged the state with open calls for violent revolution, and his future essays instead focused on individualism and criticisms of capitalism. He would not be arrested again until 1919: for assaulting a police officer, for which he received a 3-month term. He was also briefly held in detention in France in 1922 before being deported to Japan.
Free love and scandal
Ōsugi was married to Hori Yasuko in September 1906, but later pursued a relationship with Kamichika Ichiko and author Noe Itō as part of his philosophical and political beliefs in egoism and free love.
He first met Ichiko, a 26-year-old reporter for the Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun, in April 1914 at a meeting of his Sanjikarizumu Kenkyūkai ("Syndicalism Study Society") through two of his anarchist associates, Miyajima Sukeo and his wife Reiko. Initially Ōsugi made no mention of her in his writings. But in 1915, he and his wife moved to Zushi, Kanagawa Prefecture, to publish the second Kindai Shisō. On Fridays he would commute to Tokyo to teach his Furansu Bungaku Kenkyūkai ("French Literature Study Society") classes and he'd spend the night at Ichiko's house. This led to their affair, which was an open secret by that December.
During this time he encountered Itō on several occasions, as both were anarchists who mingled in similar circles. In February 1913, Ōsugi attended a meeting of the Seitō-sha Kōenkai ("Seitō-sha lecture meeting"), making no mention of her in his review of the event. That September Itō published a translation of an article by Emma Goldman—which Ōsugi had also intended on writing. Her work impressed him, and he praised it highly in a review of articles on women's liberation.
It was not until September 1914 that they met in the home of her husband, Tsuji Jun, introduced by Watanabe Masatarō. Initially their attraction was platonic, based on their mutual beliefs in anarchism. Later, when the Heimin Shimbun was banned by the police, Itō's Seitō was the only journal to criticize the police openly. Ōsugi noted this display of solidarity, and a message of thanks was produced by Arahata in the next issue of the Heimin shimbun. Ōsugi visited Itō at her home three times in February 1915, but their affair probably did not begin until February 1916.
In 1916, Ichiko stabbed him in an incident that led to an open scandal and has been a source for popular culture (see a calendar with a drawing of it, lower left corner, in ) and was the inspiration for the film Eros + Massacre, by Yoshishige Yoshida and Masahiro Yamada (1969).
Involvement with Comintern
In June 1920 Osugi was contacted by the Korean Yi Ch'un-Suk, who persuaded him to come to Shanghai and meet with Asian Communists involved with the Far Eastern Bureau of the Comintern.
The Amakasu Incident
On September 16, 1923, in the chaos immediately following the Great Kantō earthquake, Ōsugi and his lover/partner, Noe Itō, and his 6-year-old nephew, Munekazu Tachibana, were arrested, beaten to death, and thrown into a well by a squad of military police led by Lieutenant Amakasu Masahiko.
The killing of such high-profile anarchists along with a child became known as the Amakasu Incident and sparked surprise and anger throughout Japan.
Timeline of Ōsugi's life
1885 – January: Sakae Ōsugi born
1889 – December: Father transferred from Tokyo to Sendai
1891 – April: Enters elementary school
1895 – July: The first Sino-Japanese War begins; father dispatched to war zone
1897 – April: Advances to higher elementary school
1898 – April: Enters Shibata Middle School
1899 – Summer: Travels to Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka to visit relatives
1901 – April: Receives 30-day disciplinary confinement to Cadet School, probably for homosexual activity; November: Stabbed during fight with another cadet and expelled from Cadet School after returning to Shibata
1902 – January: Moves to Tokyo and enters Tokyo Academy; June: Mother dies; October: Enters fifth year at Junten Middle School
1903 – September: Enters Tokyo School of Foreign Languages (now Tokyo University of Foreign Studies), and experiments with Christianity; December (approximately): Begins to frequent the Heimin-sha
1904 – February: Russo-Japanese War begins; father dispatched to war zone
1905 – July: Graduates from Tokyo School of Foreign Languages
1906 – March: Arrested in demonstration against increasing Tokyo trolly fare; June: Released on bail; September: Marries Hori Yasuko, and begins teaching Esperanto; November: Begins editing Katei Zasshi, and charges filed against Ōsugi for writing "Shinpei shokun ni atau"
1907 – March: Charges filed against Ōsugi for writing "Seinen ni uttau"; May: Incarcerated in Sugamo Prison; November: Released from prison
1908 – January: Arrested for the Rooftop Incident, and incarcerated in Sugamo Prison; March: Released from prison; June: Arrested for the Red Flag Incident; September: Incarcerated in Chiba Prison
1909 – November: Father dies
1910 – November: Released from prison
1912 – October: Begins publishing Kindai Shisō
1914 – April: First meets Kamichika Ichiko; September: Stops publishing Kindai Shisō, and introduced to Itō Noe; October: Begins publishing Heimin Shimbun
1915 – March: Stops publishing Heimin Shimbun; October: Begins publishing second Kindai Shisō; December: Begins affair with Kamichika Ichiko, and removed from control of second Kindai Shisō
1916 – January: Second Kindai Shisō ceases publication; February: Begins affair (perhaps) with Itō Noe; May: Itō Noe leaves husband, Tsuji Jun, for Ōsugi; November: Stabbed by Kamichika Ichiko
1917 – January: Hori Yasuko renounces ties with Ōsugi; September: First daughter born
1918 – January: Begins publishing Bummei Hihyō; April: Stops publishing Bummei Hihyō, and begins publishing Rōdō Shimbun; July: Stops publishing Rōdō Shimbun
1919 – May: Strikes policeman Andō Kiyoshi; July: Charged for striking policeman; October: Begins publishing Rōdō Undō; December: Incarcerated in Toyotama Prison, and second daughter born
1920 – March: Released from prison; June: Stops publishing Rōdō Undō; October: Goes to Shanghai to attend Congress of Far Eastern Socialists; December: Taken into temporary custody at founding meeting of Nihon shakaishgi dōmei in Tokyo
1921 – January: Begins publishing second Rōdō undō in cooperation with Bolshevik faction; March: Third daughter born; June: Stops publishing second Rōdō Undō; December: Begins publishing third Rōdō Undō
1922 – June: Fourth daughter born; September: Attends Osaka meeting to found national labor union; November: Invited to attend the International Congress of Anarchists in Berlin in early 1923; December: Departs for Europe
1923 – February: Arrives in France; May: Arrested at May Day demonstration in Saint-Denis; June: Deported from France; July: Arrives in Japan. Last issue of third Rōdō Undō; September: Murdered together with Noe Itō and nephew in aftermath of the Great Kantō earthquake.
Ōsugi Sakae in film
Director Kiju Yoshida made Eros + Massacre (エロス＋虐殺) in 1969, about Ōsugi's life
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
The Anarchist Movement in Japan, a pamphlet by John Crump; includes information on Ōsugi Sakae and Kōtoku Shūsui
e-texts of Ōsugi Sakae at Aozora Bunko
Osugi and Bakunin compares Osugi's internationalism with Bakunin's Slavic chauvinism.
The Legends of Ōsugi Sakae and Noe Ito
1885 births
1923 deaths
Egoist anarchists
Free love advocates
Japanese anarchists
Japanese anti-capitalists
Japanese Esperantists
Japanese socialists
Murdered anarchists
People from Kagawa Prefecture
People of Meiji-period Japan
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356218
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Csumi%20Province
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Ōsumi Province
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was an old province of Japan in the area that is today the eastern part of Kagoshima Prefecture. It was sometimes called . Ōsumi bordered on Hyūga and Satsuma Provinces.
Osumi's ancient capital was near modern Kokubu. During the Sengoku and Edo periods, Ōsumi was controlled by the Shimazu clan of neighboring Satsuma and did not develop a major administrative center.
The Ōsumi region has developed its own distinct local dialect. Although Ōsumi is part of Kagoshima Prefecture today, this dialect is different from that spoken in the city of Kagoshima. There is a notable cultural pride in traditional poetry written in Ōsumi and Kagoshima dialects.
Japan's first satellite, Ōsumi, was named after the province.
Historical record
In the 3rd month of the 6th year of the Wadō era (713), the land of Ōsumi Province was administratively separated from Hyūga Province. In that same year, Empress Genmei's Daijō-kan continued to organize other cadastral changes in the provincial map of the Nara period.
Historical districts
Kagoshima Prefecture
Aira District (姶良郡) - absorbed Kuwabara and Nishisoo Districts on March 29, 1896
Gomu District (馭謨郡) - merged into Kumage District on March 29, 1896
Hishikari District (菱刈郡) - merged with Kitaisa District (北伊佐郡) of Satsuma Province to become the 2nd incarnation of Isa District (伊佐郡) on March 29, 1896
Kimotsuki District (肝属郡) - absorbed Minamiōsumi District on March 29, 1896
Kumage District (熊毛郡) - absorbed Gomu District on March 29, 1896
Kuwabara District (桑原郡) - was merged into Aira District (along with Nishisoo District) on March 29, 1896
Ōshima District (大島郡)
Ōsumi District (大隅郡)
Kitaōsumi District (北大隅郡) - merged into Kagoshima District (鹿児島郡) of Satsuma Province (along with Taniyama District (谿山郡) of Satsuma Province) on March 29, 1896
Minamiōsumi District (南大隅郡) - merged into Kimotsuki District on March 29, 1896
Soo District (囎唹郡)
Higashisoo District (東囎唹郡) - merged with Minamimorokata District (南諸県郡) (formerly from Miyazaki Prefecture) to become the 2nd incarnation of Soo District (曽於郡; as of 1972) on March 29, 1896
Nishisoo District (西囎唹郡) - was merged into Aira District (along with Kuwabura District) on March 29, 1896
Notes
References
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du Japon (Nihon Ōdai Ichiran). Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691.
Other websites
Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Former provinces of Japan
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356221
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege%20of%20%C5%8Ctsu
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Siege of Ōtsu
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The took place in 1600, concurrent with the battle of Sekigahara. Kyōgoku Takatsugu held Ōtsu castle for the Tokugawa, and commanded the garrison.
Mōri Terumoto and Tachibana Muneshige laid siege. The sides negotiated and Takatsugu surrendered. However, in the meantime Tokugawa Ieyasu had won the battle of Sekigahara, assuring his control of all Japan, and so the loss of Ōtsu was ultimately insignificant.
Some records of the time indicate that the local inhabitants brought picnic boxes and gathered at Mii-dera on Mount Hiei to observe the battle.
References
Turnbull, Stephen (1998). 'The Samurai Sourcebook'. London: Cassell & Co.
1600 in Japan
Otsu 1600
Otsu 1600
Conflicts in 1600
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356222
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oyama%20Shrine%20%28Ishikawa%29
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Oyama Shrine (Ishikawa)
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is a Shinto shrine in Kanazawa, Ishikawa, Japan.
The shrine was established in 1599, dedicated to Maeda Toshiie (the first lord of Kaga Domain), in Utatsu-yama (卯辰山), east of Kanazawa. It was moved to its present location in 1873 and renamed to Oyama-jinja. The main gate was constructed in 1875. This gate is a peculiar mix of traditional Japanese, Chinese, and European religious architectural elements. The gate is high including the lightning rod. The third floor is particular famous for its Dutch stained-glass windows. It is said that the third floor was also used as a lighthouse. The gate was designated an Important Cultural Asset on August 29, 1950.
External links
Oyama Jinja Shrine Kanazawa City Tourism Association
Religious buildings and structures completed in 1599
1599 establishments in Japan
Religious organizations established in the 1590s
Shinto shrines in Ishikawa Prefecture
Buildings and structures in Kanazawa, Ishikawa
Giyōfū architecture
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356223
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadao%20Araki
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Sadao Araki
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Baron was a general in the Imperial Japanese Army before and during World War II. As one of the principal nationalist right-wing political theorists in the Empire of Japan, he was regarded as the leader of the radical faction within the politicized Imperial Japanese Army and served as Minister of War under Prime Minister Inukai. He later served as Minister of Education during the Konoe and Hiranuma administrations.
After World War II, he was convicted of war crimes and given a life sentence but was released in 1955.
Early life and career
Araki was born in Komae, Tokyo; his father was an ex-samurai retainer of the Hitotsubashi branch of the Tokugawa family. Araki graduated from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in November 1897 and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in June of the following year.
Promoted to lieutenant in November 1900 and promoted to captain in June 1904, Araki served as company commander of the 1st Imperial Regiment during the Russo-Japanese War.
After the war, Araki returned to graduate from the Army Staff College at the head of his class. He served on the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff in April 1908 and served as a language officer stationed in Russia from November 1909 to May 1913, when he was made military attaché to Saint Petersburg during World War I. He was promoted to major in November 1909 and to lieutenant colonel in August 1915 and was assigned to the Kwantung Army.
Promoted to colonel on July 24, 1918, Araki served as a Staff Officer at Expeditionary Army Headquarters in Vladivostok in 1918 and 1919 during the Japanese Siberian Intervention against the Bolshevik Red Army, and was commander of the 23rd Infantry Regiment. During his time in Siberia, Araki carried out secret missions in the Russian Far East and in Lake Baikal.
Promoted to major general on March 17, 1923, Araki was made commander of the 8th Infantry Brigade. He served as Provost Marshal General from January 1924 to May 1925, wheby he rejoined the Army General Staff as a Bureau Chief. Araki was promoted to lieutenant general in July 1927 and became Commandant of the Army War College in August 1928.
Araki served as commander of the IJA 6th Division from 1929 through 1931, when he was appointed Deputy Inspector General of Military Training, one of the most prestigious posts within the army. He was promoted to the rank of full general in October 1933.
Cabinet minister
On 31 December 1931, Araki was appointed Minister of War
in the cabinet of Prime Minister Tsuyoshi Inukai.
However, in 1932, the May 15 Incident caused Inukai to be assassinated by ultranationalist navy officers for resisting the Army's war demands. Araki supported the assassins and called them "irrepressible patriots." He also supported General Shiro Ishii and his biological warfare research project, Unit 731.
Prince Saionji, one of the emperor's closest and strongest advisors, attempted to stop the military takeover of the government. In a compromise, a naval officer, Admiral Makoto Saitō, became Prime Minister on 26 May. Araki remained as War Minister and made further demands on the new government. Later that month, Japan unveiled its new foreign policy, the Amau doctrine. The new policy became a blueprint for Japanese expansionism in Asia.
In September 1932, Araki started to become more outspoken in promoting totalitarianism, militarism, and expansionism. In a September 23 news conference, Araki first mentioned the philosophy of Kodoha ("The Imperial Way"), which linked the Emperor, the people, land, and morality as one indivisible entity, and he emphasized State Shintoism. Araki also strongly promoted Seishin Kyoiku (spiritual training) for the army.
Araki became a member of the Supreme War Council but on 23 January 1934 resigned as War Minister because of ill health. He was ennobled with the title of baron (danshaku) in 1935 under the kazoku peerage system. In 1936, Kodoha-affiliated officers launched another rebellion in the February 26 Incident. The rebellion failed; the rebel leaders were this time executed, and Kodoha generals were purged from the Army, including Araki. He was forced to retire in March.
Fumimaro Konoe became Prime Minister in 1937. In 1938, Konoe appointed Araki as Education Minister, to offset the influence of the Toseiha ("Control Faction"). That placed him in an ideal position to promote militarism ideals through the national education system and in the general populace. Araki proposed the incorporation of the samurai code in the national education system. He promoted the use of the official academic text Kokutai no Hongi ("Japan's Fundamentals of National Policy"), and the "moral national bible" Shinmin no Michi ("The Path of Subjects"), an effective catechism on national, religious, cultural, social, and ideological topics. Araki continued to serve as Education Minister when Konoe was succeeded as Prime Minister by Hiranuma Kiichirō. He then continued to serve as an advisor to the government as a State Councillor.
Political career
In 1924, Araki founded the Kokuhonsha (Society for the Foundation of the State), a secret society containing some of the most powerful generals, admirals and civilians dedicated to his Statist philosophy mixing totalitarianism, militarism, expansionism, and loyalty to the emperor. Araki was also theoretician of the even more radical Sakurakai (Cherry Blossom Society) which actively attempted to bring about a 'Showa Reformation' through coups d'état.
As a colonel, Araki was the principal proponent of the Kodoha political faction (Imperial Benevolent Rule or Action Group) within the Japanese Army, together with Jinzaburo Mazaki, Heisuke Yanagawa and Hideyoshi Obata. Their opposition was the Toseiha (Control Group) led by General Kazushige Ugaki. The Kodoha represented the radical and ultranationalist elements within the army; the Toseiha attempted to represent the more conservative moderates. These groups had a common intellectual origin in the Double Leaf Society, a 1920s military thinking group, supporting samurai ideals.
The groups were later to merge into the Imperial Way Faction (Kodoha) and incorporated a mixture of right-wing and national socialist ideas, particularly those of Kita Ikki and the pro-fascist philosophies of Nakano Seigo, of which Araki was a leading member.
In January 1939, Araki became involved in the National Spiritual Mobilization Movement and revitalized it by having it sponsor public rallies, radio programs, printed propaganda and discussion seminars at tonarigumi neighborhood associations.
Northern Expansion Doctrine
Within the Army, Araki was a supporter of the Northern Expansion Doctrine (Hokushin-ron), which proposed attack on the Soviet Far East and Siberia.
An essential first step in the Hokushin-ron proposal was for Japan to seize control of Manchuria. Araki was a supporter of the unauthorized studies of China and the preparation of war scenarios by radical junior officer cliques within the Army. Through his connections with the Sakurakai, Araki intensified efforts to take the government away from civilian control, isolate the Emperor (Shōwa Reformation), unite the many secret societies, and put on a close confidant, Shigeru Honjō, as commander of the Kwantung Army.
The Kwantung Army had 12,000 men available for the invasion of Manchuria at the time of the Mukden Incident but needed reinforcements. Araki arranged that another protégé, Chōsen Army commander Senjuro Hayashi was briefed to move his forces from Korea north into Manchuria without permission from Tokyo in support of the Kwantung Army.
The plot to seize Manchuria proceeded as planned, and when presented by the fait accompli, all that Prime Minister Reijirō Wakatsuki could do was weakly protest and resign with his cabinet. When the new cabinet was formed, Araki, as War Minister, was the real power in Japan.
Postwar
After World War II, Araki was arrested by the American Occupation authorities and brought before the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, where he was tried for Class A war crimes. He was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiracy to wage aggressive war but was released from Sugamo Prison in 1955 for health reasons. Like other Japanese peers, he was stripped of his hereditary peerage in 1947 upon the abolition of the Kazoku.
Araki died in 1966, and his grave is at Tama Cemetery, in Fuchū in Tokyo.
References
Citations
Sources
Books
External links
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1877 births
1966 deaths
People from Komae, Tokyo
Japanese military personnel of the Russo-Japanese War
Kazoku
Shōwa Statism
Japanese fascists
Japanese generals
Japanese people of World War II
Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun
Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure
Recipients of the Order of the Golden Kite
Ministers of the Imperial Japanese Army
Government ministers of Japan
Japanese people convicted of the international crime of aggression
People convicted by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East
Japanese prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by international courts and tribunals
Japanese politicians convicted of crimes
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356225
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Parkes%20%28diplomat%29
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Harry Parkes (diplomat)
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Sir Harry Smith Parkes (24 February 1828 – 22 March 1885) was a British diplomat who served as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary and Consul General of the United Kingdom to the Empire of Japan from 1865 to 1883 and the Chinese Qing Empire from 1883 to 1885, and Minister to Korea in 1884. Parkes Street in Kowloon, Hong Kong is named after him.
Early life
Parkes was born in Birchill Hall in the parish of Bloxwich in Staffordshire, England. His father, Harry Parkes, was the founder of Parkes, Otway & Co., ironmasters. His mother died when he was four, while his father was killed in a carriage accident in the following year. He lived with his uncle, a retired naval officer, at Birmingham and was educated at a boarding school in Balsall Heath before entering King Edward's School, Birmingham in May 1838.
Career in China (1841–64)
First Opium War
In June 1841, Parkes sailed to China to live with his cousin, Mary Wanstall, who was also the wife of the German missionary Karl Gützlaff. Upon arriving in Macau in October 1841, he prepared for employment in the office of John Robert Morrison, a translator of Sir Henry Pottinger, who was then the British envoy and plenipotentiary and superintendent of British trade in China. Around the time, the First Opium War (1839–42) was being fought between the British and the Qing Empire of China.
Parkes learnt the basics of the Chinese language and joined Morrison in Hong Kong in May 1842. On 13 June, he accompanied Pottinger on an expedition up the Yangtze River to Nanking. He witnessed the Battle of Chinkiang, the last major battle of the First Opium War, on 21 July. He was also present at the signing of the Treaty of Nanking on board on 29 August.
As a translator and then a consul
Between September 1842 and August 1843, Parkes served as a clerk under Karl Gützlaff, who was appointed as a civil magistrate in Chusan after the British occupied the island. In August 1843, he passed the consular examination in Chinese in Hong Kong and was appointed as a translator in Foochow in the following month. However, as there was a delay in the opening of Foochow port, he was instead reassigned to serve at the consulate in Canton and as an assistant to the Colonial Secretary of Hong Kong.
In June 1844, Parkes was appointed as a translator in Amoy. In March 1845, he and Rutherford Alcock (the British consul in Amoy) were transferred to Foochow, where they were attacked on 4 October by Chinese soldiers, who threw stones at them. In June 1846, he assisted Alcock in securing $46,163 from the Chinese authorities in Fukien as compensation for British property looted and destroyed during a riot.
In August 1846, Parkes and Alcock were transferred to Shanghai, where Parkes continued to serve as Alcock's translator. He started studying the Japanese language in the following year. In March 1848, he accompanied the British vice-consul in Shanghai to Nanking to negotiate the punishment of the Chinese men who assaulted three British missionaries in Tsingpu, Shanghai. He was appointed as a translator in Shanghai on 9 April 1848. After taking a period of leave from 1850–51 in Europe, he returned to China and continued his service as a translator in Amoy – an appointment he assumed in July 1849. He was reassigned to Canton again on 21 November 1851 and travelled there in February in the following year. While he was in Canton, he served as an acting Consul during Sir John Bowring's absence. In August 1853, he was temporarily placed in charge of the British vice-consulate in Canton.
Parkes was appointed as the British consul in Amoy in 1854. In 1855, he accompanied Bowring to Siam as a joint secretary of the diplomatic mission to conclude a commercial treaty between the British and Siamese. The treaty, known as the Bowring Treaty, was signed in Bangkok on 18 April. Parkes then returned to Britain with the Bowring Treaty for it to be ratified by the British government. He delivered it on 1 July and was received by Queen Victoria on 9 July. He spent the rest of the year helping the Foreign Office with Chinese and Siamese business. He exchanged the ratified Bowring Treaty in Bangkok on 5 April 1856 and arrived in Canton in June to serve as the acting British consul during Alcock's absence.
Second Opium War
Outbreak of war
Parkes's position as the acting British Consul in Canton brought him into renewed contact with Ye Mingchen (or Yeh Ming-ch'en), the Qing-appointed Imperial Commissioner and Governor-General of Canton. Conflict between them eventually led to the outbreak of the Second Opium War (1856–60).
On 8 October 1856, the Chinese-owned lorcha Arrow, which was allegedly sailing under the Red Ensign, was boarded by officials from the Qing water patrol when she entered the Pearl River after they received intelligence that several pirates were on board. They arrested 12 Chinese sailors and took down the Red Ensign from the Arrow. Parkes protested to Ye against the removal of the Red Ensign because he saw it as an insult to Britain. Ye replied that Arrow was owned and crewed by Chinese sailors and the flag was not flying at the time. Parkes considered this action a violation of British treaty rights so he reported the incident to Sir John Bowring, the Governor of Hong Kong, and portrayed it as an insult to Britain.
Parkes then demanded that Ye release the detained sailors immediately and apologise for the alleged insult to the British flag. Although the British right to enter Canton had been established under the Treaty of Nanking in 1842, it had previously been denied. Bowring saw the Arrow incident as an opportunity to enforce this right. The deliberate escalation of the incident into a war was the object of forcing the removal of Britain's obstacles to trade and diplomacy in Canton.
Ye refused to capitulate despite minor reprisals, thus the Royal Navy breached Canton's walls on 29 October, after which Parkes accompanied Admiral Sir Michael Seymour in entering Ye's administrative office. The British did not have sufficient troops to permanently occupy Canton, but they kept warships on the Pearl River and positioned their artillery to overlook the city. On 16 December, Qing forces set fire to the European settlement outside the city. Parkes retreated to Hong Kong and spent nearly a year there. During this period of time, he was severely criticised in Parliament. On 26 February 1857, Lord Malmesbury said in the House of Lords, "If it were not for the serious consequences involved in this matter, I do not know that I have ever met anything which I should consider more grotesque than the conduct of Consul Parkes throughout these transactions."
Battle of Canton
British reinforcements assembled in Hong Kong in November 1857 in preparation for war against the Qing Empire under the direction of Lord Elgin, who had been appointed as the British High Commissioner and Plenipotentiary to China. The British acted in coordination with the French, who were also drawn into the Second Opium War over the death of Auguste Chapdelaine, a French missionary in China. Parkes, who was attached to Admiral Seymour's staff, was part of the group of Anglo-French representatives who delivered an ultimatum to the Qing officials on 12 December. When the ultimatum expired, the British and French bombarded Canton on 28 December and conquered the city by late December. Parkes hunted Ye Mingchen through the streets of Canton; George Wingrove Cooke reported that Parkes took special pleasure in humiliating Ye. "Ye was my game," said Parkes, and finally found what a report called "a very fat man contemplating the achievement of getting over the wall at the extreme rear" of the administrative office.
On 9 January 1858, Bogui (or Po-kuei) was nominally reinstated by the Qing government as the Governor-General of Canton, but the city was actually governed by a European commission of two Englishmen (one of whom was Parkes) and a French naval officer. Parkes was the leader of the trio because he was the only one among them who could speak Chinese. The commission established a court, administered a police force, and opened the port on 10 February. Even though the Treaty of Tientsin was signed on 26 June, the Qing authorities in Kwangtung province remained hostile towards Europeans in Canton throughout 1858. They even mobilised militias and placed a large bounty on Parkes's head. Parkes was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) by Queen Victoria on 6 December 1859.
Peking campaign
On 25 June 1859, with the British attack on the Taku Forts by the Hai River in Tientsin hostilities between the Anglo-French and Qing sides resumed. On 6 July, Parkes was requested to join Lord Elgin in the Gulf of Pechihli. He sailed on 21 July and was appointed as Lord Elgin's Chinese secretary alongside Thomas Francis Wade.
On 1 August 1860, as an attaché to General Sir James Grant, Parkes was sent to Pehtang, Tientsin to take possession of the evacuated fort and perform some reconnaissance during the advance to the Taku Forts. After the successful assault on the main north fort on 21 August, he assisted in the negotiations for the surrender of the remaining Chinese positions in the forts. Three days later, he arrived in Tientsin, where he arranged for provisions for the Anglo-French forces and had meetings with the Qing imperial commissioners. Upon learning that the imperial commissioners did not hold plenipotentiary powers from the Xianfeng Emperor as they initially believed, the British and French troops then advanced further towards Tungchow near the Qing capital, Peking.
Parkes and a delegation – whose members included Henry Loch (Lord Elgin's private secretary) and Thomas William Bowlby (a journalist for The Times) – travelled ahead of the Anglo-French army to negotiate with the Qing officials in Tungchow on 14 and 17 September. After some negotiations, they managed to secure an agreement that the Anglo-French army should move to a position about away from Tungchow. On 18 September, he left Tungchow to mark out the site of the proposed British encampment, but returned to remonstrate with the Qing officials when he saw a Qing military force assembling at the site. After receiving a hostile response, he and the delegation attempted to head back to the British headquarters, but were arrested by Qing soldiers under the command of the general Sengge Rinchen. Following his capture, Parkes was escorted to Peking along with Loch, Nal Singh (a Sikh sowar), and two French soldiers. In Peking, he and Loch were taken to the Ministry of Justice (or Board of Punishments), where they were incarcerated and tortured.
On 29 September, as ordered by Prince Gong (the Xianfeng Emperor's brother), Parkes and Loch were transferred out of the prison to more comfortable living quarters in a temple, where they were pressured to intervene in the negotiations between the Anglo-French and Qing sides. Parkes refused to make any pledges or address any representations to Lord Elgin. On 8 October, Parkes, Loch and six other members of the delegation were released from captivity – just shortly before the Qing government received an order from the Xianfeng Emperor, who was taking shelter in the Chengde Mountain Resort, for their executions. On 18 October, in retaliation for the torture and deaths of the other members of the delegation, Lord Elgin ordered the British and French troops to burn down the Qing Empire's Old Summer Palace in the northwest of Peking.
Post-Second Opium War events
Following the signing of the Convention of Peking on 18 October 1860, Parkes returned to his post in Canton in January 1861 and managed the cession of Kowloon, Hong Kong to the Crown. The Treaty of Tientsin had opened the three Chinese port cities of Chinkiang, Kiukiang and Hankow to foreign trade. Between February and April 1861, Parkes accompanied Vice-Admiral Sir James Hope on an expedition along the Yangtze River to set up consulates at the three cities and attempt to reach an agreement with the Taiping rebels at Nanking.
Parkes returned to Peking in April 1861 but left for Nanking again in June for further meetings with the Taiping rebel leaders. On 21 October, the British and French returned the control of Canton to the Qing government, thereby ending Parkes's duties as the British commissioner in Canton. Parkes travelled to Shanghai in November and met up with the Taiping rebels again in Ningpo in December. In January 1862, he returned to England, where stories about his brief captivity in China during the Second Opium War had made him famous. On 19 May 1862, Queen Victoria made him a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) for his services. Parkes left England in January 1864 and arrived on 3 March in Shanghai, where he assumed the position of consul which he was previously appointed to on 21 December 1858. He was elected President of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society in 1864, resuscitating the moribund society.
Career in Japan (1865–83)
In May 1865, during a trip to the Yangtze ports, Parkes received a notification for him to succeed Sir Rutherford Alcock as "Her Majesty's Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary and Consul-General in Japan". One of his tasks was to ensure the approval of the Imperial Court in Kyoto for the Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty of 1854 and the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce of 1858.
During this turbulent Bakumatsu period, Parkes pursued a policy of neutrality between the Tokugawa shogunate and the pro-Imperial forces, hoping for a peaceful resolution to the crisis. Due to his support for the reformers, he was marked and treated with bitter hostility by the reactionaries, who attempted to assassinate him on three separate occasions. The overthrow of the shogunate and the subsequent Boshin War caught him by surprise, but he continued the policy of British neutrality. On 22 May 1868 he presented his credentials to Emperor Meiji, thus making Great Britain the first foreign power to officially recognize the new Meiji government.
Throughout his 18 years in office, Parkes was instrumental in bringing a large number of British foreign advisors to train the Imperial Japanese Navy and to build modern infrastructure, such as lighthouses, a telegraph system and a railway between Tokyo and Yokohama.
He ran the British mission in a way that encouraged the junior members to research on, and study, Japan in greater depth. Ernest Satow and William George Aston benefited from this to become prolific scholars of Japanese studies.
While in Japan, Parkes's wife became known, in 1867, as the first non-Japanese woman to ascend Mount Fuji. She fell ill and died in London in November 1879 while making preparations for her family to come home. Although he was summoned urgently by telegraph, Parkes did not manage to reach London until four days after her death. He wrote to Frederick Victor Dickins, "She hoped to the last that I should have reached in time. I have now six children to take charge of, and feebly indeed shall I replace her in that charge, while the Legation will have lost that bright and good spirit to which it owed whatever attention it possessed."
Japanese paper report and collection
In 1869, Prime Minister William Gladstone requested a report on washi (Japanese paper) and papermaking from the British embassy in Japan. Parkes and his team of consular staff conducted a thorough investigation in different towns, and then published a government report, Reports on the manufacture of paper in Japan, and produced a collection of over 400 sheets of handmade paper. The main parts of this collection are housed in the Paper Conservation Laboratory of the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the Economic Botany Collection of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. In 1879, Kew sent duplicate samples to Glasgow, Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide, but these have been lost. The Parkes paper collection is important because the origin, price, manufacturing method and function of each paper was precisely documented.
Career in Korea (1883–84)
Having represented the British in the negotiations leading to a treaty of "Friendship, Commerce and Navigation," signed in the Kyongbok Palace in Seoul on 26 November 1883, Parkes was appointed as the British Minister to Korea in 1884. The new treaty came into force in April 1884, when Parkes returned to Seoul to exchange ratifications.
Death
Parkes died of malarial fever on 21 March 1885 in Beijing (called "Peking" at the time). On 8 April 1890, the Duke of Connaught unveiled a statue of Parkes at the Bund in Shanghai, where it stood until it was removed during the Japanese occupation of Shanghai in the Second Sino-Japanese War. There is a memorial to him in St Paul's Cathedral.
Family
While in England, Parkes met Fanny Plumer, the granddaughter of Sir Thomas Plumer, the first Vice Chancellor of England, at the home of a mutual friend. "She was a beautiful girl," wrote a friend about her, "tall, well-proportioned, and graceful, her colouring rich and soft, her features expressing sensitiveness and the power of warm emotion; her dark brown eyes full of intelligence and speaking earnestness of purpose. She possessed in a large degree the power of fascination in which all her family were remarkable." After a six-week courtship, Parkes and Plumer were married on New Year's Day, 1856, in St Lawrence's Church, Whitchurch. The couple left England on 9 January.
Lady Fanny Parkes is noted for being the first non-Japanese woman, possibly the first woman, ever to scale Mount Fuji on 7 and 8 October 1867.
Parkes's elder daughter, Marion Parkes, married James Johnstone Keswick from the Keswick family, the controllers of Jardine Matheson Holdings. His second daughter, Mabel Desborough Parkes, married Captain Egerton Levett, a Flag Lieutenant in the Royal Navy. She died after falling from her horse in 1890.
Selected works
In a statistical overview derived from writings by and about Parkes, OCLC/WorldCat encompasses roughly 20 works in more than 30 publications in four languages and over 400 library holdings.
Observations on Mr. P.P. Thoms' rendering of the Chinese word ... Man. (1852)
File concerning Harry Parkes' mission to Bangkok in 1856 from the Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, London by Harry Parkes (1856)
Papers, 1853–1872
See also
Thomas Blake Glover
Anglo-Chinese relations
Anglo-Japanese relations
British Japan Consular Service
List of Ambassadors from the United Kingdom to Japan
List of Ambassadors from the United Kingdom to Korea
List of Ambassadors from the United Kingdom to China
References
Daniels, Gordon. (1996). Sir Harry Parkes: British representative in Japan 1865–83. Folkestone: Japan Library.
Lane-Poole, Stanley and Frederick Victor Dickins. (1894). Life of Sir Harry Parkes. (Vol. I, China; Vol. II, Japan) London: [digitised by University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, "China Through Western Eyes." ] extract, volume 1, chapters XV-XVII
Nish, Ian. (2004). British Envoys in Japan 1859–1972. Folkestone, Kent: Global Oriental. ; OCLC 249167170
Parkes, Harry. (1871)."Reports on the manufacture of paper in Japan," Japan, No. 4.
UK in Japan, Chronology of Heads of Mission
Kew Gardens, Economic Botany Collection, includes Parkes papers
British people of the First Opium War
British people of the Second Opium War
British diplomats in East Asia
1828 births
1885 deaths
People from Bloxwich
People of the Taiping Rebellion
British expatriates in Japan
British expatriates in China
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Japan
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to China
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Korea
19th-century Hong Kong people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapu-Lapu%20City
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Lapu-Lapu City
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, officially the (; ), is a in the region of the . According to the , it has a population of people.
Formerly known as Opon, the city was renamed to its present name in 1961. It is one of the cities that make up Metro Cebu in the Philippines. It is geographically located in the province of Cebu, administratively independent from the province, but grouped under Cebu by the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA).
Mactan–Cebu International Airport, the second busiest airport in the Philippines, is located in Lapu-Lapu City.
History
In the 16th century, Mactan Island was colonized by Spain. Augustinian friars founded the town of Opon in 1730, and it became a city in 1961. It was renamed after Datu Lapulapu, the island's chieftain, who led the defeat against the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 in the Battle of Mactan, commemorated at Mactan Shrine in Punta Engaño, where Magellan led a landing party of 40 men to resupply who were set upon by 1,500 locals and slew their captain and a few other men.
The municipality of Opon was founded by the Augustinian missionaries in 1730. It was ceded to the Jesuits in 1737, and later restored to the Augustinians. When the Philippine Revolution spread to the Visayas in 1898, the people organized themselves into local revolutionary units.
During the Filipino-American War, a military government was established. The continued resistance of the people of Cebu prompted the American government to restore military control over the province on July 17, 1901. In 1905, Opon held its first municipal election, and Pascual dela Serna was elected town president.
Following the outbreak of World War II, the presence of bulk oil storage tanks in Opon made the town an object of Japanese raids a week after the outbreak of WWII in December 1941. The enemy aircraft succeeded in blowing up two of about fourteen oil storage tanks in Opon. A unit of the Kawaguchi Detachment of the Japanese Imperial Forces landed on the east coast of Cebu on April 10, 1942. Later, the resistance movement was organized by Colonel James M. Cushing, leader of the southern and central units, and Harry Fenton of the northern unit of the Cebu Resistance Movement.
During the Battle of the Visayas, Victor II operations of the American Division led by Major General William Arnold landed in Cebu on March 26, 1945, and subsequently liberated the province.
Congressman Manuel A. Zosa, the representative of the Sixth District of Cebu, sponsored the Bill converting the former municipality of Opon into the present day city of Lapu-Lapu. This was the Republic Act 3134, known as the City Charter of Lapu-Lapu, which was signed on June 17, 1961, by Philippine President Carlos P. Garcia. Lapu-Lapu was inaugurated on December 31, 1961, with Mariano Dimataga, the last municipal mayor, as the first city mayor.
As a fast-growing commercial city, some of its commercial and industrial firms are the General Milling Company, one of the largest in the country; the Cebu Shipyard and Engineering Works, pioneered by Dad Cleland; and the oil companies which resumed their operations after the war. Air transportation for the city is served by the Mactan International Airport.
Historically, the city includes the site of the Battle of Mactan. On August 1, 1973, by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 2060, President Ferdinand E. Marcos declared the site of the battle a national shrine; the preservation, restoration and/or reconstruction of which shall be under the supervision and control of the National Historical Commission in collaboration with the Department of Tourism. Mactan is also the birthplace of Leonila Dimataga-Garcia, wife of Carlos P. Garcia, the fourth President of the Republic. Leonila Dimataga-Garcia was a relative of three-term consecutive Lapu-Lapu Citys' late Mayor, Ernest Weigel Jr. wife, who was the richest mayor in Metro Cebu, with a net worth of ₱57.7 million in the early 2000s.
On January 23, 2007, Lapu-Lapu was proclaimed as HUC via Proclamation No. 1222, signed by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. Its plebiscite was held along with Puerto Princesa in Palawan on July 21, 2007. Both of them successfully became highly urbanized cities after majority of their voters voted in favor of conversion. They ranked 31st and 32nd in the country.
Geography
Lapu-Lapu is bounded on the north by the main island of Cebu, to the west by Cebu City and Mactan Channel, on the east by the Camotes Sea, and on the south by the town of Cordova.
The city occupies Mactan Island, a few kilometers off the main island of Cebu. It also has some of the barangays under its jurisdiction on the Olango Island Group. The city is linked to Mandaue on mainland Cebu by the Mactan-Mandaue Bridge and Marcelo Fernan Bridges.
Barangays
Lapu-Lapu comprises 30 barangays:
Climate
Demographics
Lapu-Lapu's residents mainly speak Cebuano, the local language. Tagalog and English is also widely spoken and understood, due to the influx of foreign nationals in the city. Due to the large number of resorts and retirement homes in the city, as well as the growing number of ESL schools, the city also hosts a number of Japanese, Korean, and Chinese speakers.
Economy
Local government
Mariano Dimataga's term was interrupted during the years 1941-1945. Teodulo Tomakin and later Eugenio Araneta were appointed as town mayors. They later escaped from the Japanese, Jorge Tampus took over. During the Allied liberation by the combined Filipino-American forces, year 1945 Mariano Dimataga resumed his interrupted term.
Transportation
Mactan–Cebu International Airport (MCIA) is located in this city, which is connected to mainland Cebu via the Marcelo Fernan Bridge and Mactan-Mandaue Bridges, as well as the Cebu–Cordova Link Expressway (located in the nearby town of Cordova), over the sea separating the Mactan island from the island of Cebu. The airport is the main gateway to Cebu and Central Visayas, serving international flights to various destinations, especially to Singapore, Macau, Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. MCIA is also the second busiest airport in the Philippines, after Ninoy Aquino International Airport in Manila.
Gallery
Notable people
Janine Berdin - The grand winner of the second season of Tawag ng Tanghalan
See also
List of renamed cities and municipalities in the Philippines
Notes
References
Sources
External links
[ Philippine Standard Geographic Code]
Lapu-Lapu City government website
About Lapu-Lapu City
Cities in Cebu
Highly urbanized cities in the Philippines
Populated places established in 1730
1730 establishments in the Philippines
Cities in Metro Cebu
Island cities in the Philippines
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9on%20Roches
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Léon Roches
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Léon Roches (September 27, 1809, Grenoble – 1901) was a representative of the French government in Japan from 1864 to 1868.
Léon Roches was a student at the Lycée de Tournon in Grenoble, and followed an education in Law. After only 6 months at university, he quit to assist friends of his father as a trader in Marseilles.
North Africa
When Léon's father acquired a plantation in Algeria, Léon left France to join him on June 30, 1832. Léon spent the next 32 years on the African continent. He learned the Arab language very rapidly and after only two years was recruited as translator for the French Army in Africa. He served as an Officer (Sous-Lieutenant) of cavalry in the Garde Nationale d'Algerie from 1835 to 1839. General Bugeaud asked him to negotiate with Abd-el-Kader in order to bring about the cessation of hostilities against the French. He is noted as having been highly respected by Arab chieftains.
Under Bugeaud's recommendation, Roches joined the French Foreign Ministry as an interpreter in 1845. In 1846 he became Secretary of the legation in Tanger, and then took responsibilities at the French mission in Morocco.
From 1855 to 1863, Roches served as the French consul general in Tunis, Tunisia.
Using his experiences in North Africa, he wrote a book titled Trente-deux ans à travers l′Islam (Thirty-two years through Islam).
Trieste
By an exceptional nomination, Roches became first-class Consul in Trieste, allowing him to acquire a strong experience in trading matters. After three years, he was appointed Consul in Tripoli. In 1855, he became Consul in Tunis. He often wore Arab dress and was renowned for his abilities with guns and horses.
Japan
On October 7, 1863, Roches was nominated Consul General of France in Edo, Japan. His great rival was the British consul Harry Parkes. The French government took the side of the Tokugawa Bakufu and thus was not very popular in Japan after the Meiji Restoration.
Roches advocated the use of strength against the anti-foreign adversaries of the Shogunate. He fully supported the 1864 allied Bombardment of Shimonoseki.
Roches also helped the Shogunate modernize. He arranged for an "Ecole Franco-Japonaise" to be established, and organized the building of the Yokosuka arsenal. In 1866, he wrote to the French Minister Drouyn de Lhuys:
Notes
References
Medzini, Meron French Policy in Japan Harvard University Press 1971,
See also
Franco-Japanese relations
1809 births
1901 deaths
Ambassadors of France to Japan
19th-century French diplomats
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrogio%20Lorenzetti
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Ambrogio Lorenzetti
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Ambrogio Lorenzetti (; – 9 June 1348) or Ambruogio Laurati was an Italian painter of the Sienese school. He was active from approximately 1317 to 1348. He painted The Allegory of Good and Bad Government in the Sala dei Nove (Salon of Nine or Council Room) in Siena's Palazzo Pubblico. His elder brother was the painter Pietro Lorenzetti.
Biography
Lorenzetti was highly influenced by both Byzantine art and classical art forms, and used these to create a unique and individualistic style of painting. His work was exceptionally original. Individuality at this time was unusual due to the influence of patronage on art. Because paintings were often commissioned, individualism in art was infrequently seen. It is known that Lorenzetti engaged in artistic pursuits that were thought to have their origins during the Renaissance, such as experimenting with perspective and physiognomy, and studying classical antiquity. His body of work clearly shows the innovativeness that subsequent artists chose to emulate.
His work, although more naturalistic, shows the influence of Simone Martini. The earliest dated work of the Sienese painter is a Madonna and Child (1319, Museo Diocesano, San Casciano). His presence was documented in Florence up until 1321. He would return there after spending a number of years in Siena.
Later he painted The Allegory of Good and Bad Government. The frescoes on the walls of the Room of the Nine (Sala dei Nove) or Room of Peace (Sala della Pace) in Siena's Palazzo Pubblico are one of the masterworks of early Renaissance secular painting. The "nine" was the oligarchal assembly of guild and monetary interests that governed the republic. Three walls are painted with frescoes consisting of a large assembly of allegorical figures of virtues in the Allegory of Good Government. In the other two facing panels, Ambrogio weaves panoramic visions of Effects of Good Government on Town and Country, and Allegory of Bad Government and its Effects on Town and Country (also called "Ill-governed Town and Country"). The better preserved "well-governed town and country" is an unrivaled pictorial encyclopedia of incidents in a peaceful medieval "borgo" and countryside.
The first evidence of the existence of the hourglass can be found in the fresco, Allegory of Bad Government and Its Effects on Town and Country.
Like his brother, he is believed to have died of bubonic plague in 1348. Giorgio Vasari includes a biography of Lorenzetti in his Lives.
Selected works
Annunciation, 1344
Lorenzetti's final piece, telling the story of the Virgin Mary receiving the news from the Angel about the coming of baby Jesus, contains the first use of clear linear perspective. Though it is not perfect, and the gold ground that is traditional for the time renders a flat feeling, the diagonals created on the floor do create depth.
Madonna and Child, 1319
In Madonna and Child, there is a clear debt to Byzantine art. The image of the Madonna is noted for its frontality, which is a typical characteristic of Byzantine art. The Madonna faces the viewer, as the Child gazes up at her. Though not as emotionally intense as subsequent Madonnas, in Lorenzetti's Madonna and Child, the Virgin Mary belies a subtle level of emotion as she confronts the viewer. This difference could be attributed to the patron's stylistic wishes for Madonna and Child, or could indicate Lorenzetti's evolution of style. But, even in this early work, there is evidence of Lorenzetti's talent for conveying the monumentality of figures, without the application of chiaroscuro. Chiaroscuro was often used to subtle effect in Byzantine art to depict spatial depth. Ambrogio instead used color and patterns to move the figures forward, as seen in Madonna and Child.
Investiture of Saint Louis of Toulouse, 1329
In this fresco, St. Louis is being greeted by Pope Boniface VIII as he is granted the title of Bishop of Toulouse. It was one in a series of frescoes painted with his brother, Pietro Lorenzetti, for Saint Francis of Assisi. This fresco is particularly well known for its realistic sense of depth within an architectural environment, due to Lorenzetti's compellingly rendered three-dimensional space. Moreover, his figures are positioned in a very natural and familiar manner, introducing an awareness of naturalism in art. Lorenzetti's command of spatial perspective is thought to prefigure the Italian Renaissance. This fresco also shows his talent for depicting emotion, as we see on King Charles II’s face during the king’s witness to his son’s rejection of material goods and power. Such attention to detail possibly indicates an intellectual curiosity. Giorgio Vasari, in Lives of the Most Excellent, Painters, Sculptors and Architects wrote of Lorenzetti's intellectual abilities, saying that his manners were "more those of a gentleman and philosopher than those of an artist".
Maestà, 1335
In his Maestà, completed in 1335, his use of allegory prefigures Effects of Bad Government in the City. Allegorical elements reference Dante, indicating an interest in literature. Additionally, this might point to the beginnings of vernacularization of literature at this time, a precursor to humanist ideas. In Maestà, Lorenzetti followed the artistic tradition set by other Sienese painters like Simone Martini but adds an intense maternal bonding scene to Maestà, which was unusual in contemporary Sienese art. In the painting, the Virgin gazes at her child with intense emotion as he grasps her dress, returning her gaze. By personalizing the Virgin Mary in this way, Lorenzetti has made her seem more human, thus creating a profound psychological effect on the viewer. This highlights the increasing secularity in Sienese art at this time, of which Lorenzetti was a leading proponent, through the uniqueness of his painting style. The crowd of saints depicted with the Virgin is a Byzantine artistic tradition, used to indicate an assemblage of witnesses. As such, Lorenzetti's art could be seen as a transition between Byzantine and Renaissance styles of art. Lorenzetti's interest in classical antiquity can be seen in Maestà, particularly in the depiction of Charity. In his memoirs, I Commentarii, the sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti mentions Lorenzetti's interest in an antique statue uncovered during an excavation in Siena at the time, attributed to the Greek sculptor, Lysippus.
References
Further reading
External links
Ambrogio Lorenzetti at Panopticon Virtual Art Gallery
Arch 343: Cities in History - Lecture 10: The Uses of Decorum - Lorenzetti's Good and Bad Government
1290 births
1348 deaths
Trecento painters
13th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
14th-century Italian painters
Painters from Siena
Gothic painters
14th-century deaths from plague (disease)
Sibling artists
Catholic painters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro%20Lorenzetti
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Pietro Lorenzetti
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Pietro Lorenzetti (; – 1348) or Pietro Laurati was an Italian painter, active between c.1306 and 1345. Together with his younger brother Ambrogio, he introduced naturalism into Sienese art. In their artistry and experiments with three-dimensional and spatial arrangements, the brothers foreshadowed the art of the Renaissance.
Overview
Little is known of Lorenzetti's life other than he was (putatively) born in Siena in the late 13th century (c.1280/90), died there (possibly) in 1348 a victim of the first Black Death pandemic then devastating Europe, and had a younger brother, Ambrogio, also an artist. That the men were brothers was unknown to Vasari because he misread Pietro's surname on a painting in Pistoia's church of San Francesco as "Laurati". Thus the kinship between the artists was missed.
Pietro worked in Assisi, Florence, Pistoia, Cortona, and Siena, although the precise chronology is unknown. His work suggests the influence of Duccio (in whose studio he may have worked, possibly alongside Simone Martini), Giotto, and Giovanni Pisano.
According to Vasari, it was Pietro's frescoes which adorned the facade of Siena's Ospedale della Scala that first bought him to the attention of his contemporaries. Unfortunately, the frescoes – now believed to be the work of both Lorenzetti brothers – were destroyed in 1720 and subsequently whitewashed over.
Many of his religious works may still be seen in churches and museums in the Tuscan towns of Arezzo, Assisi, and Siena (e.g., his last documented work – the Nativity of the Virgin (c. 1335–1342) – is displayed in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo).
Although Lorenzetti's integration of frame and painted architecture in the Nativity of the Virgin is usually thought to be unique, it is evident in the frescoes of Assisi some decades earlier. One probable conclusion can be made that he did not read Latin as there was documentation of a translator being paid in association with his work on The Birth of the Virgin.
His masterwork is a fresco decoration of the lower church of Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi, where he painted a series of large scenes depicting the Crucifixion, Deposition from the Cross, and Entombment. The massed figures in these pieces display emotional interactions, unlike many prior depictions which appear to be iconic agglomerations, as if independent figures had been glued onto a surface, with no compelling relationship to one another. The narrative influence of Giotto's frescoes in the Bardi and Peruzzi Chapels in Santa Croce (Florence) and the Arena Chapel (Padua) can be seen in these and other works of the lower church. The Lorenzetti brothers and their contemporary competitor from Florence, Giotto, but also his followers Bernardo Daddi and Maso di Banco, seeded the Italian pictorial revolution that extracted figures from the gilded ether of Byzantine iconography into pictorial worlds of towns, land, and air. Sienese iconography, generally more mystical and fantastic than that of the more naturalistic Florentines, sometimes resembles a modern surrealist landscape.
Works
Arezzo Polyptych
The gilded three-story altarpiece, the Arezzo (or Aretine or Tarlati) Polyptych, was commissioned in 1320 by bishop Guido Tarlati for the Santa Maria della Pieve in Arezzo. At its centre is the Madonna (draped in a magnificent ermine-lined robe) and child, flanked by John the Evangelist, John the Baptist, Saint Matthew, and Arezzo's patron saint, Donatus (martyred in 361 CE). The rich colours, graceful lines, decorative detail, and supple figures (suggestive of Martini's influence), endow the piece with "a vivacity rare in contemporary Sienese art."
The polyptych is Lorenzetti's first dated work (c1320-4) and one of only four with verifiable documentation including the Carmelite Altarpiece, the Uffizi Madonna, and the Birth of the Virgin. “The dating has allowed scholars to identify with precision a specific stage of the painter's activity and style."
Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi
Perhaps Lorenzetti's most ambitious work is the Passion fresco cycle in the left transept of the Lower Church of San Francesco in Assisi. These seventeen well-preserved frescoes – the highpoint of his early career – show "the influence of Giotto's monumentality, the impulse of Pisano, thirteenth century Expressionism...and the teachings of Duccio.” The conditions for the execution of the frescoes would have been difficult as very little natural light would be available and the lower church would be near darkness. The exact time line of the frescoes is in question; some scholars believed the cycle was painted in sections over several years as the style had some similarities to Lorenzetti's Carmelite Altarpiece. The reasons are varied, from painting only in the dry season to the bloody skirmishes in the area at the time. The more recent technical and stylistic evidence presented by Maginnis poses strong arguments that Lorenzetti's Passion Cycle was completed in one campaign between the years 1316 or 1317 and 1319.
Believed to be one of his earliest works (begun as early as 1310) is the Madonna and Child with Saint Francis and John the Baptist, in the chapel of Saint John the Baptist. According to Maginnis the “finest and most complete realization of the ambition to conjoin real and painted space was left to Pietro Lorenzetti, working in the left transept. There, his well-known fictive altar-piece is, in reality, much more.”
Lorenzetti's fresco cycle begins with The Entry into Jerusalem, the Last Supper, the Washing of the Feet, the Capture of Christ, the Flagellation' and the Way to Calvary.
These first scenes were painted beginning at the top of the vaulted roof and working to the bottom so as to avoid dripping from above onto a freshly painted scene.The Last Supper has Christ and his disciples seated around an awkwardly angled table within a refulgent rotunda under a night sky festooned with shooting stars and a crescent moon. To the left of the holy diners is a narrow kitchen and in it is a man doing dishes, a woman at his shoulder, a dog licking the last scraps from a plate, and a cat asleep. Into this apparently mundane scene, Lorenzetti surprises with an innovation, for the pets and plates cast definite shadows at angles determined by their relation to the fire.The Crucifixion, the largest and most damaged of the frescoes, is considered one of Lorenzetti's great paintings.
Two scenes on the end wall, the Deposition from the Cross and the Deposition in the Tomb, show the mourners lovingly removing Christ from the cross and placing, with slow measured movements, his lifeless body in the tomb. This demonstrates Lorenzetti's technical ability and maturity, resembling Giotto's use of naturalistic human emotions.
The Suicide of Judas is painted on the facing wall, at the corner between the entrance to the transept at the top of the stairs, where it is painted as to appear part of the architecture of the transept. This is the only fresco with an inscription (scariotas).
In front of the Crucifixion is the Stigmata of Saint Francis. The portrayal of the life of Saint Francis appears in the nave of the church, suggesting a parallel between the life of Christ and that of Saint Francis. Lorenzetti carries the idea further by placing Saint Francis next to the Capture of Christ replacing Agony of Garden from the original Passion story with Saint Francis.
The upper scenes on the same wall and the final two stories of the Passion cycle, the Descent of Christ to Limbo and the Resurrection are horn shaped in a small difficult space. The two scenes represent examples of similar styles to the first six scenes, especially the face of Christ.Madonna of the Sunsets below the Crucifixion in a painted frame is the Madonna and Child, Saint John the Evangelist, and Saint Francis. Mary has a unique gesture, holding her thumb up pointing back to Saint Francis, raising his hand to accept his calling.
The last image of Lozenzetti's Assisi frescoes, portraits of Saints Rufino, Catherine of Alexandria, Clare, and Margaret appear above a bench with an artistic illusion, appearing three-dimensional. The end of the bench casts a shadow following the form of the painted moldings. There is only one light source and the painted shadow appears to originate from that light source.
Birth of the Virgin
Lorenzetti's last major work (1342) was a triptych altarpiece, Birth of the Virgin, commissioned for the Siena Cathedral. This tempera on panel painting, like many Sienese paintings of the time, celebrates the life of the Virgin, the patron saint of Siena.Birth of the Virgin was the third painting in a series completed for the Siena Cathedral, beginning with Duccio's Maestà and including Simone Martini's Annunciation. Duccio, Simone, and Pietro were all members of the Sienese School. Duccio's high altarpiece, the Maesta, was commissioned in 1308. Timothy Hyman says the Maesta was “part of the Commune's wider programme to promote and strengthen Siena's civic identity.” The central panel of the Maesta honors the Virgin through the depiction of The Virgin and Christ Enthroned in Majesty with Angels and Saints. As Hyman writes, if a viewer compares Duccio's Maesta with Pietro's the Birth of the Virgin, one can “...recognize Pietro's colour-world as startlingly different: dense, saturated, opaque, planar."
Martini's Annunciation was completed in 1333 and displayed beside Duccio's Maesta. Again, the Virgin is glorified in Martini's altarpiece, which depicts the Annunciation, or the angel Gabriel's announcement to the Virgin Mary that she will become the mother of Jesus. As Hyman states when comparing Duccio's Maesta with Simone's Annunciation, "Simone's blue-mantled figure silhouetted against the gold was both an echo and a rupture; the still icon transformed into narrative, the hieratic divinity swept up into dramatic action."
While Duccio's Maesta and Simone's Annunciation were displayed behind the choir screen, Pietro's Birth of the Virgin was on view in the central part of the Siena Cathedral. In contrast to Duccio's regal depiction of the Virgin in the Maesta and Simone's Annunciation with a scene that appears supernatural, the Birth of the Virgin is notable for Pietro's representation of the Virgin in a corporeal setting. In this scene, a bath is being poured for the Virgin, midwives attend St. Anne who lounges on a plaid blanket-covered bed, and an expectant father awaits news of the birth. The figures are modeled and solid. Although the holy persons are signified with crowns of light, they appear otherwise terrestrial. If not for their crowns of light, and St. Anne's unnaturally large body, this painting could be interpreted as a genre painting depicting the everyday lives of ordinary people. If one compares this intimate household scene adorned with richly colored textiles to the gold groundwork that creates an otherworldly effect in Simone's Annunciation, one quickly notices that Pietro has created a more accessible Virgin. A small panel in the Abegg-Stiftung, Riggisberg, which has been attributed to either Pietro or Ambrogio Lorenzetti, similarly depicts the Holy Family in a domestic setting with Mary engaged in needlework or knitting, the Christ Child clinging to her and Joseph beside them and a plaid cover on a bed in the left side chamber.
Perhaps one of the most extraordinary qualities of Birth of the Virgin is Pietro's use of spatial illusion. It is likely Pietro was influenced by the work of his brother, Ambrogio Lorenzetti. As Keith Christiansen states, “...the key impetus to his experiments with centralized spatial projection was doubtless his collaboration with Ambrogio, with whom he shared workshop materials.” Pietro creates a seamless architectural world with the integration of the frame and picture plane. The vertical columns and bed frame running parallel to the picture plane create a planar composition. In addition, Pietro's rendering of the vaulted ceilings adds dimension to the rooms and encloses this intimate scene. Depth is further generated in the left panel of the triptych, as the viewer peers outside the waiting room to see a nearby building. As Hyman affirms, "[Birth of the Virgin] reads both as a triptych... and as a deep, unified space—the most convincing interior space of the entire fourteenth century."
Pietro's innovative use of spatial illusion in Birth of the Virgin solidifies his place amongst the great masters of trecento Sienese art such as Duccio di Buonisegna, Ambrogio Lorenzetti, and Simone Martini.
The Carmelite Altarpiece
The Carmelite altarpiece was a polyptych commissioned in 1329 for the Carmelite order friars. It consisted of a central panel depicting the Madonna and Child with St. Nicholas and Elijah. The side panels displayed St. Agnes, John the Baptist, Catherine, and Elisha. The predella below comprised five narrative paintings. Instead of taking their subject from the Bible, these five paintings show events from the history of the Carmelite Order. A striking feature of the overall design is the broad central panel of the predella, which allowed the painter to depict the consignment of the Carmelite rule in the early thirteenth century in a particularly detailed manner. The significance of Elijah in the Carmelite altarpiece is that Elijah was held to be the founder of the Carmelite order. For the Carmelite friars Elijah is the most significant saint besides the Virgin. The Carmelite altarpiece's illusion of three-dimensional forms marks a new phase in Lorenzetti's style.
The Carmelite altarpiece was sold in 1818 and subsequently lost. It was found when the Asano Madonna was restored to its original state, revealing Lorenzetti's Carmelite altarpiece underneath. Two clues to restorers that the Asano Madonna was in fact the Carmelite altarpiece were the uncovering of Saint Elijah hidden under a later rendering of Saint Anthony for the Asano order, and the Carmelite colours of the costumes worn by the painted figures. The panel is signed and dated on the step of the throne: PETRUS LAURENTII ME PINXIT ANNO DOMINI MCCCXXVIII.
The Castiglione d'Orcia Madonna
The Madonna of Castiglione d'Orcia was painted prior to 1300 and is as such Lorenzetti's earliest extant work. In it, the figures are restrained, the mood reflective. The Child's dress is contemporary and elegant; the Virgin wears a deep blue cloak boarded by a Byzantine gold-striated band.
Much about the piece is traditional: the Virgin's head sits along the vertical axis which crosses her right eye, itself gazing at the viewer (the same arrangement is found in Duccio's Rucellai Madonna), the tilts of the Virgin's and Child's faces (the Child gazes up at his mother whose head tilts toward her son but whose eyes remain steadfastly fixed toward the viewer) echo Duccio's earlier Virgin and Child renderings such as the Stoclet Madonna and Child.
And yet there is something new in Lorenzetti's Madonna, for it has a realism largely absent in Duccio. Here, the Virgin's body responds 'realistically' to the weight of the child. In earlier depictions of the Virgin and child by Duccio the Virgin's physicality remains affected by the realistic influences of weight and composition. The type of secure holding that Lorenzetti depicts in this painting is unprecedented in a painting, but could have been found in previous sculptures of Virgin and Child.
Gallery
References and sources
References
Sources
Giorgio Vasari includes a biography of Lorenzetti in his Lives.
External links
Carl Brandon Strehlke, "Virgin and Child Enthroned and a Servite Friar, with Angels by Pietro Lorenzetti (cat. 91;EW1985-21-1,2" in The John G. Johnson Collection: A History and Selected Works'', a Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication.
Pietro Lorenzetti at the Web Gallery of Art
Pietro Lorenzetti at Panopticon Virtual Art Gallery
1280s births
1348 deaths
13th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
14th-century Italian painters
Painters from Siena
Gothic painters
14th-century deaths from plague (disease)
Sibling artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vecchietta
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Vecchietta
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Lorenzo di Pietro (1410 – June 6, 1480), known as Vecchietta, was an Italian Sienese School painter, sculptor, goldsmith, and architect of the Renaissance. He is among the artists profiled in Vasari's Le Vite delle più eccellenti pittori, scultori, ed architettori.
It is believed Vecchietta was a pupil of Sassetta, Taddeo di Bartolo, and Jacopo della Quercia. Later in his life he was the master of Francesco di Giorgio and Neroccio de’ Landi.
"Pittor dello Spedale"
Vecchietta was born in Siena. Much of his work may be found there, particularly at the Hospital of Santa Maria della Scala, lending him yet another name: pittor dello spedale (or "painter of the hospital").
For the Pellegrinaio (Pilgrim Hall) at the Hospital complex, Vecchietta painted a series of frescoes, along with Domenico di Bartolo and Priamo della Quercia, including The Founding of the Spedale and The Vision of Santa Sorore, depicting a dream of the mother of the cobbler Sorore, the mythical founder of the Hospital.
Later, around 1444, he created the Cappella del Sacro Chiodo, also known as the Old Sacristy, decorated with his own work. The frescoes included Annunciation, Nativity, and Last Judgment scenes, and an Allegory of the Ladder depicting children climbing to heaven. For the high altar of the Church of the Santissima Annunziata, within the Hospital complex, he created a bronze figure of the Risen Christ (signed and dated 1476), which shows the influence of Donatello.
The Arliquiera, a painted wardrobe for holy relics, was painted by Vecchietta and placed in the Old Sacristy of Santa Maria della Scala in 1445. It is now in the collection of the National Picture Gallery of Siena.
Other works in Siena
An enormous bronze ciborium, created by Vecchietta for the Hospital of Santa Maria della Scala (c. 1467-72), was moved to the Cathedral of Siena in 1506. According to Vasari, "This casting, which is admirable, acquired very great fame and repute for him by reason of the proportion and grace that it shows in all its parts; and whosoever observes this work well can see that the design is good, and that the craftsman was a man of judgment and of practised ability." Between 1447 and 1450, a series of frescoes were completed for the Baptistry of San Giovanni at Siena Cathedral, executed by Vecchietta and his pupils. They include depictions of the Evangelists, Prophets and Sibyls, the Four Articles of the Creed, and the Assumption. The frescoes were substantially repainted at the end of the 19th century. Vecchietta also painted two scenes on the wall of the apse: Flagellation and Road to Calvary.
At the Palazzo Saracini, he created a sculpture of St. Martin. A bronze tomb statue of Marianus Soccinus the Elder (a noted Sienese jurist) for the church of San Domenico is housed at the Uffizi in Florence. For the Loggia della Mercanzia, Vecchietta sculpted life-size figures of St. Peter and St. Paul (c.1458-1460), which Vasari praised as "wrought with consummate grace and executed with fine mastery." Vecchietta also crafted a silver statue of St. Catherine of Siena at the time of the saint's canonization in 1461. This work disappeared after the siege of Siena in 1555.
Works elsewhere
Outside Siena, Vecchietta's chief work is a painting of the Assumption (1451) at the church in Pienza, created for the Piccolimino Pope Pius II. The Uffizi in Florence, in addition to the bronze statue of Marianus brought from Siena, has a panel depicting the Madonna created by Vecchietta.
Vecchietta died in Siena on 6 June 1480.
References
Notes
External links
Vecchietta's Risen Christ, Santa Maria della Scala Hospital, Siena
Vecchietta's Founding of the Spedale, Santa Maria della Scala Hospital, Siena
Website of Santa Maria della Scala, Siena
1412 births
1480 deaths
Italian goldsmiths
Italian architects
15th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Painters from Siena
Italian sculptors
Italian male sculptors
Catholic sculptors
Catholic decorative artists
Catholic painters
Architects of Roman Catholic churches
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20television%20stations%20in%20West%20Virginia
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List of television stations in West Virginia
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This is a list of broadcast television stations that are licensed in the U.S. state of West Virginia.
Full-power stations
VC refers to the station's PSIP virtual channel. RF refers to the station's physical RF channel.
Defunct full-power stations
Channel 35: WJPB-TV - ABC/DuMont/NBC - Fairmont (3/17/1954-2/28/1955)
Channel 49: WKNA-TV - ABC/DuMont - Charleston (9/17/1953-2/12/1955)
Low-power stations
Translators
Cable-only stations
WBWO - The CW - Wheeling
See also
West Virginia media
List of newspapers in West Virginia
List of radio stations in West Virginia
Media of cities in West Virginia: Charleston, Huntington, Wheeling
Bibliography
External links
West Virginia Broadcasters Association
West Virginia
Television stations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20World%20monkey
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New World monkey
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New World monkeys are the five families of primates that are found in the tropical regions of Mexico, Central and South America: Callitrichidae, Cebidae, Aotidae, Pitheciidae, and Atelidae. The five families are ranked together as the Ceboidea , the only extant superfamily in the parvorder Platyrrhini .
Platyrrhini means broad-nosed, and their noses are flatter than those of other simians, with sideways-facing nostrils. Monkeys in the family Atelidae, such as the spider monkey, are the only primates to have prehensile tails. New World monkeys' closest relatives are the other simians, the Catarrhini ("down-nosed"), comprising Old World monkeys and apes. New World monkeys descend from African simians that colonized South America, a line that split off about 40 million years ago.
Evolutionary history
About 40 million years ago, the Simiiformes infraorder split into the parvorders Platyrrhini (New World monkeys—in South America) and Catarrhini (apes and Old World monkeys—in Africa). The individuals whose descendants would become Platyrrhini are currently conjectured to have migrated to South America either on a raft of vegetation or via a land bridge. There are two possible rafting routes, either across the Atlantic Ocean from Africa or across the Caribbean from North America; however, there is no fossil record to support the hypothesis of a migration from North America. The land bridge hypothesis relies on the existence of Atlantic Ocean ridges and a fall in the sea level in the Oligocene. This would have produced either a single land bridge or a series of mid-Atlantic islands to act as stepping stones for the migration. The latter is now the favoured land bridge hypothesis.
At the time the New World monkeys split off, the Isthmus of Panama had not yet formed, ocean currents and climate were quite different, and the Atlantic Ocean was less than the present width by about a third; possibly less, based on the current estimate of the Atlantic mid-ocean ridge formation processes spreading rate of .
However, the non-platyrrhini Ucayalipithecus of Amazonian Peru who might have rafted across the Atlantic between ~35–32 million years ago, are nested within the Parapithecoidea from the Eocene of Afro-Arabia. Parvimico and perupithecus from Peru appear to be at the base of the Platyrrhini.
The chromosomal content of the ancestor species appears to have been 2n = 54. In extant species, the 2n value varies from 16 in the titi monkey to 62 in the woolly monkey.
A Bayesian estimate of the most recent common ancestor of the extant species has a 95% credible interval of -.
Classification
The following is the listing of the various platyrrhine families, as defined by Ryland & Mittermeier (2009), and their position in the Order Primates:
Order Primates
Suborder Strepsirrhini: lemurs, lorises, galagos, etc.
Suborder Haplorrhini: tarsiers + monkeys, including apes
Infraorder Tarsiiformes: tarsiers
Infraorder Simiiformes
Parvorder Platyrrhini: New World monkeys
Family Callitrichidae: marmosets and tamarins
Family Cebidae: capuchins and squirrel monkeys
Family Aotidae: night or owl monkeys (douroucoulis)
Family Pitheciidae: titis, sakis, and uakaris
Family Atelidae: howler, spider, woolly spider, and woolly monkeys
Parvorder Catarrhini: Old World monkeys, apes, and humans
Characteristics
New World monkeys are small to mid-sized primates, ranging from the pygmy marmoset (the world's smallest monkey), at and a weight of , to the southern muriqui, at and a weight of . New World monkeys differ slightly from Old World monkeys in several aspects. The most prominent phenotypic distinction is the nose, which is the feature used most commonly to distinguish between the two groups. The clade for the New World monkeys, Platyrrhini, means "flat nosed". The noses of New World monkeys are flatter than the narrow noses of the Old World monkeys, and have side-facing nostrils.
New World monkeys are the only monkeys with prehensile tails—in comparison with the shorter, non-grasping tails of the anthropoids of the Old World. Prehensility has evolved at least two distinct times in platyrrhines, in the Atelidae family (spider monkeys, wooly spider monkeys, howler monkeys, and wooly monkeys), and in capuchin monkeys (Cebus). Although prehensility is present in all of these primate species, skeletal and muscular-based morphological differences between these two groups indicate that the trait evolved separately through convergent evolution. The fully prehensile tails that have evolved in Atelidae allow the primates to suspend their entire body weight by only their tails, with arms and legs free for other foraging and locomotive activities. Semi-prehensile tails in Cebus can be used for balance by wrapping the tail around branches and supporting a large portion of their weight.
New World monkeys (except for the howler monkeys of genus Alouatta) also typically lack the trichromatic vision of Old World monkeys. Colour vision in New World primates relies on a single gene on the X-chromosome to produce pigments that absorb medium and long wavelength light, which contrasts with short wavelength light. As a result, males rely on a single medium/long pigment gene and are dichromatic, as are homozygous females. Heterozygous females may possess two alleles with different sensitivities within this range, and so can display trichromatic vision.
Platyrrhines also differ from Old World monkeys in that they have twelve premolars instead of eight; having a dental formula of or (consisting of 2 incisors, 1 canine, 3 premolars, and 2 or 3 molars). This is in contrast with Old World Anthropoids, including gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, siamangs, gibbons, orangutans, and most humans, which share a dental formula of . Many New World monkeys are small and almost all are arboreal, so knowledge of them is less comprehensive than that of the more easily observed Old World monkeys. Unlike most Old World monkeys, many New World monkeys form monogamous pair bonds, and show substantial paternal care of young. They eat fruits, nuts, insects, flowers, bird eggs, spiders, and small mammals. Unlike humans and most Old World monkeys, their thumbs are not opposable (except for some Cebids).
See also
List of New World monkey species
List of primates by population
References
Further reading
External links
Geographic Distributions of Amazonian Primates – Tomas and Marc van Roosmalen, Pdf 3,2 Mb
Extant Rupelian first appearances
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas%20Achenbach
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Andreas Achenbach
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Andreas Achenbach (29 September 1815, Kassel – 1 April 1910, Düsseldorf) was a German landscape and seascape painter in the Romantic style. He is considered to be one of the founders of the Düsseldorf School. His brother, Oswald, was also a well known landscape painter. Together, based on their initials, they were known as the "Alpha and Omega" of landscape painters.
Biography
His father, Hermann,(1783–1849) was a merchant by trade, but worked at a number of professions. In 1816, he became the manager of a metal factory in Mannheim. Two years later, they moved to St.Petersburg, where his father wanted to set up a factory with money that his mother had received as an inheritance. It was here that Andreas took his first drawing lessons. The project failed and they returned to Rhine Province in 1823. Soon, his father had established a brewery in Düsseldorf, with an inn that was frequented by the local art community.
There, in 1827, he began his artistic education in earnest, attending the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf, where he studied with Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow and Heinrich Christoph Kolbe. In 1831, aged only sixteen, he participated in a local exhibition and sold one painting. The following year, he studied landscape painting with Johann Wilhelm Schirmer.
He then took a study trip to the Netherlands and had his first real success in 1836, at an exhibition in Cologne, where one of his paintings was purchased by the Governor of Rhine Province, Prince Frederick. After a tour of Bavaria and Tyrolia, he settled in Frankfurt and, with the assistance of Alfred Rethel, opened a studio at the Städelsche Kunstinstitut. He travelled continuously, however, often in the company of his brother, throughout Scandinavia and Italy. They both became regular visitors to Ostend. He returned home on family business in 1846.
That year, he took over the brewery and inn. His father, although technically retired, became a free-lance accountant. In 1848, he married Marie Louise Hubertine Catharine Lichtschlag (1827–1889), known as Luise. They had five children. Their second child, Maximilian, became an opera singer, known under the name Max Alvary.
He was one of the founding members of an art association known as "Malkasten" (The Paint Box) and helped them acquire the former estate of the Jacobi family in Pempelfort, which was turned into the "Malkastenpark"; now a National Monument. He took very few students other than his brother, notably Albert Flamm, Marcus Larson, Apollinary Goravsky and William Stanley Haseltine.
He received many honors throughout his life including the Order of leopold (1848), Order of Saint Stanislaus (1861) and the Order of St. Olav (1878). He became an honorary member of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in 1853 and a member of the Accademia di Belle Arti di Brera in 1862. In 1885, he was named an honorary citizen of Düsseldorf.
When he died, he was a given a grand viewing and ceremony at the Malkasten house. He was buried in a magnificent tomb with a sculpture by Karl Janssen. There is a street, the "Achenbachweg" named after him in .
Selected paintings
References
Further reading
Bettina Baumgärtel, Wolfgang Peiffer, Matthias Winzen (each publishrs): Andreas Achenbach. Revolutionär und Malerfürst. Athena-Verlag, Oberhausen 2016, .
Wolfgang Peiffer: Andreas Achenbach – Das druckgraphische Werk. Athena-Verlag, Oberhausen 2014, .
Wolfgang Peiffer: Andreas Achenbach – Italienreise. Baden-Baden 2009, .
Martina Sitt (Ed.): Andreas und Oswald Achenbach. "Das A und O der Landschaft". Kunstmuseum Düsseldorf exhibition catalog, Hamburg and Linz 1997/98. Wienand, Cologne 1997, .
External links
1815 births
1910 deaths
19th-century German painters
19th-century male artists
Artists from Kassel
People from the Electorate of Hesse
German landscape painters
German male painters
German marine artists
German romantic painters
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Kunstakademie Düsseldorf alumni
Düsseldorf school of painting
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald%20Achenbach
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Oswald Achenbach
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Oswald Achenbach (; 2 February 18271 February 1905) was a German painter associated with the Düsseldorf school of painting. Though little known today, during his lifetime he was counted among the most important landscape painters of Europe. Through his teaching activities, he influenced the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf. His brother, Andreas Achenbach, who was twelve years older, was also among the most important German landscape painters of the 19th century. The two brothers were humorously called "the A and O of Landscapes" (a reference to their initials matching a common German reference to the Alpha and Omega).
Life
Family
Oswald Achenbach was the fifth of ten children. His parents were Herman and Christine (née Zülch). There was little about the family to suggest that it would produce two of the century's most important painters. Hermann Achenbach was employed in a series of jobs, including beer and vinegar brewer, guesthouse owner, and bookkeeper. During Oswald's early childhood, the family moved to Munich where he attended primary school for at least a short period. Exactly when his family returned to Düsseldorf is not known.
Early years
Student at the Kunstakademie
In 1835, at the age of eight, Achenbach was enrolled in the elementary class of the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf (Art Academy). This was technically in violation of the Academy's bylaws, which required a minimum age of twelve. He continued there until 1841. He was a student in the elementary class, where he was instructed in the basics of drawing, and then spent a year in the architecture class. This also did not correspond to the normal curriculum as described in the bylaws. The reasons for Achenbach's treatment are not fully known. Possibly, the bylaws were in practice mere guidelines and exceptions were made often, or perhaps only for highly gifted students like Achenbach.
It is also not clear why Achenbach left the Academy in 1841. From his sketchbooks, we know that during this period he had undertaken intensive nature studies in the area around Düsseldorf.
Early travels
In 1843, the sixteen-year-old Achenbach began a journey of several months through Upper Bavaria and North Tyrol during which he continued his nature studies. His earliest known works in oil also come from this period. In 1845. Achenbach undertook a journey with his friend and later student Albert Flamm to northern Italy. The paintings that Achenbach completed from this period predominantly consist of Italian landscape motifs.
Few of Achenbach's paintings from before 1850 survive today. However, those that do indicate that his early choices of subject matter and technique were heavily influenced by the ideas being taught at the art academies of the time. The influence of Johann Wilhelm Schirmer and Carl Rottman can be seen in these paintings. In the oil studies that Achenbach completed during these trips, he adhered very closely to the landscape and concerned himself with the details of the typical Italian vegetation. Architectural motifs and figures play a much smaller role than they would in his more mature work.
Achenbach in cultural life in Düsseldorf
Until well into the 19th century, artistic education in Germany and much of Europe was strongly influenced by the "Kunstakademien", or art academies. However, particularly in the 19th century, these academies had become extremely formal and rigid and were not very responsive to new artistic directions. The academies also organized the big art exhibitions, through which artists primarily sold their work. Artists whose styles were opposed to the ideas of the academies were not exhibited and therefore generally had very few opportunities to sell their work. At the beginning of the 19th century, individual artists and representatives of entire artistic movements began to stand in opposition to the culture and concepts of the Academies.
Achenbach was one of the artists who opposed the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf and became an early member of two Düsseldorf associations, which many like-minded artists had joined. The first was the "Association of Düsseldorf Artists for Mutual Support and Help" and the association "Malkasten" ("Paintbox") which was founded on 11 August 1848 with Achenbach as one of the original signatories of the founding document. These Associations jointly staged plays, organized music evenings and put on exhibitions. At many events, Achenbach took an active part, directing, playing or staging plays. Achenbach was particularly attached to "Malkasten" and remained connected with it until the end of his life.
In 1850, his paintings were displayed in the exhibitions of the newly founded Düsseldorf gallery of Eduard Schulte. Schulte's gallery showed the works of artists who were independent of the Academy and played an important role in Achenbach's early economic success. It developed into one of the leading German galleries and later established branches in Berlin and Cologne.
First major Italian trip
In the summer of 1850, Achenbach undertook a trip to Italy, including Nizza, Genoa, and Rome. Together with Albert Flamm, he traveled from Rome into the surrounding countryside and visited the areas where earlier landscape painters had been inspired. On the trip he got to know a number of other painters better, including Arnold Böcklin, Ludwig Thiersch, and Heinrich Dreber with whom he spent a long time in Olevano. Thiersch once commented how differently the artists processed their impressions of the landscapes: Dreber drew elaborate pencil sketches, Böcklin simply let himself experience the environment and recorded relatively little in his sketchbook, while Achenbach and Flamm both painted oil studies outdoors. Achenbach's surviving studies show that he was not overly interested in details but concentrated on the characteristic colors and forms and the distribution of light and shadow. He focused on his color impressions, setting layers of paint in different thicknesses over one another to find the desired tone.
Marriage and growing recognition
On 3 May 1851, Achenbach married Julie Arnz, to whom he had been engaged since 1848. She was the daughter of a Düsseldorf publisher, who published, among other periodicals, the Düsseldorf Monathefte and the Düsseldorf Monatsalbum. Achenbach contributed to both of these with lithographs of his paintings, sketches, and other works. At the same time he began to take his first students. Between 1852 and 1857 the couple had four daughters, followed by a son in 1861. Achenbach's son, Benno von Achenbach, would be an important innovator in the equestrian sport of combined driving and was ennobled for his contributions thereto by Wilhelm II.
By this time, Achenbach's painting was already well-known internationally. In 1852, at 25, the Art Academy in Amsterdam had admitted him as a member. Several of his works were displayed the Exposition Universelle of 1855 and were very well received. In 1859, he was honored with a gold medal at the Salon Exhibition in Paris. In 1861 he was granted an honorary membership to the St Petersburg Academy and in 1862 from the Art Academy of Rotterdam.
Professor for Landscape Painting
After 1860, his technique underwent a change into what is considered his mature style. The paintings were more tactile, the paint was applied with more texture and the brushstrokes were less dependent on the subject matter represented. In parts of some paintings, Achenbach increasingly dispensed with detailed figures. This change in technique may have to do with the influence of Gustave Courbet. His favorite subjects continued to be Italian landscapes and peasant scenes, which he enhanced and idealized with his lighting.
In March 1863, Achenbach became the Professor for Landscape Painting at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf. Accepting this represented a social elevation and also financial security. It also appears to be in contradiction to his earlier opposition. However, since Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow had left the office of Director in 1859, the conflicts both within the Academy and also between the Academy and the independent artists had diminished. The appointment of Achenbach to a position was a conscious political decision reflecting the new direction of the Düsseldorf Academy, to bring about a conciliation with the independent artists.
In the same year, Achenbach was named a Knight of the Legion of Honor by Napoleon III and from 1863 to 1868 his painters were shown at the Salon in Paris. Alongside the Order of Guadelupe from Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico i 1866 and the Knights Cross, First Class from the Order of St. Michael from the jury for the International Art Exhibition in Munich in 1869, this was among the greatest honors hof his career. Such recognition for artists during this period was not uncommon, but they contributed significantly to Achenbach's fame, confirmed his recognition as an artist and were important for his commercial success.
Achenbach followed Hans Gude as Professor of Landscape Painting at the Academy. After 1866 he taught one of the highly regarded "Master Classes." Among his best-known students are Gregor von Bochmann, , Themistokles von Eckenbrecher, Arnold Forstmann, Theodor Hagen, Louis Kolitz, Ascan Lutteroth, and Carl Seibels. To his students, he emphasized above all the decisive role of light and dark for the composition of paintings. For him it was more important than the choice of subject. Consequently, he advised his students to familiarize themselves with the paintings of J.M.W. Turner. He also recommended the works of his brother Andreas.
During his professorship, Achenbach continued to undertake many trips. These included long stays in the Teutoburg Forest and Switzerland. In 1871 he and his family spent almost nine months in Italy, including Castellammare di Stabia, Amalfi, Capri, and Ischia, and several weeks in Sorrento. During this time Theodor Hagen and Albert Flamm took his place at the Academy.
After 1860, his technique underwent a change. The paintings were more tactile, the paint was applied with more texture and the brushstrokes were less dependent on the subject matter represented. In parts of some paintings, Achenbach increasingly dispensed with detailed figures. This change in technique may have to do with the influence of Gustave Courbet. His favorite subjects continued to be Italian landscapes and peasant scenes, which he enhanced and idealized with his lighting.
Later years
Achenbach gave up his professorship at the Institute in 1872. He had submitted his resignation once before, in 1869 but withdrew it. He had felt that his teaching constrained his own artistic work.
In the following years, Achenbach made numerous trips. The last big trip to Italy began in early summer 1882 and he visited Florence, Rome, Naples, and Sorrento. In 1884 and 1895 he took trips to Northern Italy. He had planned a trip in 1897 to Florence, but canceled it due to illness.
In 1897 Achenbach was made an honorary citizen of Düsseldorf in recognition of his over 50 years of engagement in various Düsseldorf institutions and associations. For many years he had been one of the leading personalities in the city. This high social position had also involved a very large and ostentatious house where he hosted artists, writers, scholars, military officers and members of the nobility. Among his most prominent guests and patrons was Karl Anton, Prince of Hohenzollern. Running such a household was expensive and necessitated Achenbach to produce many paintings. As a well-recognized artist, it was easy for him to find buyers. The larger number of his paintings, led to repetitions in the subject matter and motifs. As early as the 1860s reviewers accused him of "painting to death" certain subjects.
Later works
As in his oil studies in the 1850s, in his later works Achenbach built colors up additively, using the brush, palette knife, and his fingers. He also used the texture of the canvas as a design element. In some works, surfaces that are uniformly and carefully painted with a fine brush stand next to places where the painting surface shows through or the paint is piled high, giving some works a distinctly noticeable texture.
Another feature of Achenbach's late work is that the level of detail does not decrease continuously with the perspective, but rather reflects his aims for the overall effect of the painting. Furthermore, while in his earlier paintings, the colors were subdued and dominated by the overall tone, in later works, accentuated contrasts play an important role. Finally, pastel colors became more common in his paintings from the mid 1880s, while in his early works, browner tones dominated.
Achenbach died in Düsseldorf on 1 February 1905, one day before his 78th birthday. He was buried in the North Cemetery in Düsseldorf, where his grave is preserved to this day.
Oil studies and sketches
During Achenbach's lifetime, his paintings were mainly given public viewings and he was therefore viewed as a painter of "salon paintings" or "gallery ready" paintings in whose work the newer artistic movements were not reflected. However, as early as 1876, at the annual exhibition in the Vienna Künstlerhaus Achenbach showed an oil study and also showed his works at the "Sketches and Studies Exhibition" at the Kunsthalle Düsseldorf Exponate in 1889. The reactions to these studies were different. In Vienna they were seen as evidence that Achenbach could match his younger colleagues. In Düsseldorf, a critic wondered how "wonderful paintings" could develop out of such incomplete or imperfect sketches.
Sketches, drawings, and oil studies were for Achenbach, as with other painters, primarily as memory aids for later work in the studio. In the course of his development, however, the characteristic style of the sketch increasingly found a place in his paintings. Letters to his gallery contain complaints that he had to paint "finished" works for exhibitions. He preferred to work on the underpainting, which developed the framework of the later painting, rather than on the detailed forms. However, the tastes of the market and the purchase decisions of influential critics still demanded the "perfected" or "completed" paintings, and thus so did the Galleries. At the time, the paintings of John Constable and Charles-François Daubigny, now highly regarded, were criticized on account of their sketchiness.
Influences
Schirmer and Andreas Achenbach
During his education, Achenbach was never actually a student of Johann Wilhelm Schirmer. However, has an artist who spent the greater part of his life in Düsseldorf, he nevertheless had many opportunities to study his paintings. In Achenbach's paintings from the 1840s and early 1850s, Achenbach's paintings contain many of Schirmer's principles of composition. In his later paintings, this influence is no longer identifiable.
The influence of Schirmer on his early works is likely due to his brother, twelve years older, Andreas Achenbach, who likewise studied at the Düsseldorf Academy. Andreas was a student of Schirmer's and from certain letters it can be concluded that from at least the 1840s Oswald was receiving advice from Andreas about technique and was therefore indirectly influenced by Schirmer's views on painting. At the heights of their careers, Oswald concentrated on depictions of Italian landscapes while Andreas looked to marine scenes. In their treatment of light and staffage the works of the two brothers resemble each other.
Turner and Courbet
On many occasions, Achenbach recommended English painter J. M. W. Turner as a model. It is possible that he had never seen originals of Turner's work since he never took a trip to England. He probably knew Turner's paintings primarily from the steel engraving prints published in the art books of the time. For Turner, as with Achenbach, light played an important role. Two paintings by Turner, Mercury and Argus and Dogana, and Madonna della Salute, Venice were already reproduced in prints by 1843. They present landscapes in which individual forms and objects are only loosely depicted. Achenbach was never as radical as Turner but especially in his paintings after 1860 uses a similar painterly style in the depiction of objects.
By contrast, Achenbach likely had many opportunities to study the originals of Gustave Courbet's works. Until the Franco-Prussian War from 1870 to 1871, Achenbach was in close contact with the Paris art scene. At the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1855 when Achenbach's paintings were shown, there were also eleven paintings by Courbet on display. Courbet also had forty paintings in the "Pavilion of Realism" at the same time. Courbet's radical Realism gained a lot of attention and it is very likely that Achenbach also saw the exhibition of the Frankfurt Art Association from spring 1858 to February 1859 that showed works by Courbet and also the first big Courbet retrospective that ran parallel to the International Exposition of 1867. Similar to Courbet, one finds in Achenbach's works often bring together lone elements that differ significantly in distance from the perspective of the painter. However, while Courbet used a more even surface, Achenbach's painting was more relief-like.
Classification of Achenbach's work
Courbet's radical Realism inspired Achenbach and a number of other German painters. The so-called "Leibl-Circle" (after painter Wilhelm Leibl), including Wilhelm Trübner, Carl Schuch, Johann Sperl and for a while also Hans Thoma had intensely debated Courbet's works among themselves and were inspired to adopt a "pure painting" technique. In particular Leibl developed a brushwork technique by which the particular material of the object represented was ignored, thereby already pointing in the direction of abstraction.
By contrast, Achenbach was radical in his brushwork and application of paint but maintained the formal criteria of traditional composition. This leads to a very different art historical classification of Achenbach. Some see him as an artist who persisted in a fully developed style and for that reason stagnated. Other art historians cast Achenbach in a mediating role because he presented traditional values in his own style and moved in the direction of modernity. It is undisputed that his early landscapes were pioneering. However, as early as the start of the 20th century, he was seen as a painter who in his later works catered to public tastes and turned into a typical representative of the Gründerzeit period.
Achenbach's work consists of around 2,000 paintings. Approximately two-thirds are privately owned. His works are in the collections of many museums, mainly in Germany but also across Europe and America including the Musée d'Orsay and the Hermitage in Saint Petersburg.
Gallery
Notes
References
New York Times obituary. 2 February 1905.
Ralf Kern: Oswald Achenbach: Ein Düsseldorfer malt Italien. LIT Verlag, Münster 2009,
External links
The Bay of Naples (1884)
Art Gallery - Achenbach Oswald (Polish site)
Oswald Achenbach - Paintings from Hermitage Museum
Oswald Achenbach Paintings Gallery (Public Domain Paintings - www.art.onilm.com)
1827 births
1905 deaths
19th-century German painters
19th-century male artists
German male painters
20th-century German painters
20th-century German male artists
German landscape painters
People from the Rhine Province
Kunstakademie Düsseldorf faculty
Düsseldorf school of painting
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sado
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Sado
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Sado can refer to:
People
Prince Sado, a Joseon Korean crown prince who never acceded
Yutaka Sado, a Japanese conductor
Other
Sado (film), a 2015 South Korean film
Sado, Niigata, a city (佐渡市 Sado-shi) of Niigata Prefecture, Japan
, a parish in the municipality of Setúbal, Portugal
Sado Island, an island (佐渡島 Sadogashima) of Japan
Sado province (佐渡国 Sado no kuni), a former province of Japan located on the island
Japanese tea ceremony (茶道 Sadō)
Sado (river), a major river in Portugal
Sado, a short story by Osamu Dazai
Yasutora Sado, a fictional character in the anime and manga series Bleach
Sado, Amarapura, Burma
Sado, Benin
Sadomasochism
Japanese-language surnames
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anita%20Loos
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Anita Loos
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Corinne Anita Loos (April 26, 1888 – August 18, 1981) was an American actress, novelist, playwright and screenwriter. In 1912, she became the first female staff screenwriter in Hollywood, when D. W. Griffith put her on the payroll at Triangle Film Corporation. She is best known for her 1925 comic novel, Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, and her 1951 Broadway adaptation of Colette's novella Gigi.
Life and career
Early life
Loos was born in Sisson (now Mount Shasta), California, to Richard Beers Loos and Minerva "Minnie" Ellen Smith. Loos had one sister, Gladys, and one brother, Harry Clifford, a physician and a co-founder of the Ross-Loos Medical Group. On pronouncing her name, Loos said, "The family has always used the correct French pronunciation which is lohse. However, I myself pronounce my name as if it were spelled luce, since most people pronounce it that way and it was too much trouble to correct them."
Her father founded a tabloid newspaper, for which her mother did most of the work of a publisher. In 1892, when Anita was three years old, the family moved to San Francisco, where her father bought the newspaper The Dramatic Event, a veiled version of the British Police Gazette, with money that Minerva borrowed from her father.
By age six, Anita Loos wanted to be a writer. While living in San Francisco, she accompanied her father, an alcoholic, on exciting fishing trips to the pier, exploring the city's underbelly and making friends with the locals. This fed her lifelong fascination with lowlifes and loose women. In 1897, at their father's urging, Loos and her sister performed in the San Francisco stock company production of Quo Vadis? Gladys died at eight, of appendicitis, while their father was away on business. Anita continued appearing on stage, being the family's breadwinner. Beers Loos's spendthrift ways caught up with them, and in 1903 he took an offer to manage a theater company in San Diego. Anita performed simultaneously in her father's company, and under another name with a more legitimate stock company.
After graduating from San Diego High School, Loos devised a method of cobbling together published reports of Manhattan social life and mailing them to a friend in New York, who would submit them under the friend's name for publication in San Diego. Her father had written some one-act plays for the stock company, and he encouraged Anita to write plays; she wrote The Ink Well, a successful piece, for which she received periodic royalties.
In 1911, the theater was running one-reel films after each night's performances; Anita would take a perfunctory bow and run to the back of the theater to watch them. She sent her first attempt at a screenplay, He Was a College Boy, to the Biograph Company, for which she received $25. The New York Hat, starring Mary Pickford and Lionel Barrymore and directed by D. W. Griffith, was her third screenplay and the first to be produced. Loos dredged real life, including her own, for scenarios: she dished up her father's cronies and brother's friends, also using the rich vacationers from the San Diego resorts; eventually every experience became grist for her script mill.
By 1912, Loos had sold scripts to both the Biograph and Lubin studios. Between 1912 and 1915, she wrote 105 scripts, all but four of which were produced. She wrote 200 scenarios before she ever visited a film studio.
Hollywood
In 1915, trying to escape her mother's influence and objections to a career in Hollywood, Loos married Frank Pallma, Jr., the son of the band conductor. But Frank proved to be penniless and dull – after six months, Anita sent him out for hair pins, and while he was gone she packed her bags and went home to her mother. After that, Minnie rethought her position on a Hollywood career. Accompanied by her mother, Anita joined the film colony in Hollywood where Griffith put Loos on the payroll for Triangle Film Corporation at $75 a week with a bonus for every produced script.
Many of the scripts she turned out for Griffith went unproduced. Some he considered unfilmable because the "laughs were all in the lines, there was no way to get them onto the screen", but he encouraged her to continue, because reading them amused him. Her first screen credit was for an adaptation of Macbeth in which her billing came right after Shakespeare's. When Griffith asked her to assist him and Frank E. Woods in writing the intertitles for his epic Intolerance (1916), she traveled to New York City for the first time to attend its premiere. Instead of returning to Hollywood, Loos spent the fall of 1916 in New York and met with Frank Crowninshield of Vanity Fair. They had an instant rapport and Loos remained a Vanity Fair contributor for several decades.
Loos returned to California as Griffith was leaving Triangle to make longer films, and she joined director and future husband John Emerson for a string of successful Douglas Fairbanks movies. Loos and company realized that Douglas Fairbanks' acrobatics were an extension of his effervescent personality and parlayed his natural athletic ability into swashbuckling adventure roles. His Picture in the Papers (1916) was noted for its wry style of discursive and witty subtitles: "My most popular subtitle introduced the name of a new character. The name was something like this: 'Count Xxerkzsxxv.' Then there was a note, 'To those of you who read titles aloud, you can't pronounce the Count's name. You can only think it.' "
The five films Loos wrote for Fairbanks helped make him a star. When Fairbanks was offered a sweetheart deal with Famous Players-Lasky, he took the team of Emerson-Loos with him at the high income of $500 a week. During this time Loos, Fairbanks, and Emerson collaborated well together, and Loos was getting as much publicity as either Lillian Gish or Mary Pickford. Photoplay magazine labeled her "The Soubrette of Satire". In 1918, Famous Players-Lasky offered the couple a four-picture deal in New York for more money than they had been making with the Fairbanks unit.
New York
Loos, Emerson and fellow writer Frances Marion migrated to New York as a group, with Loos and Emerson sharing a leased mansion in Great Neck, Long Island. Loos wanted Marion as chaperone, as she found herself attracted to Emerson, a man 15 years her senior that she would refer to as "Mr. E". He would readily admit that he "had never been, nor could be, faithful to any one female." Loos convinced herself he would see that she was different from all his other girls, and that behind his outwardly dull exterior was a great mind. She would later consider herself misled on both counts, writing: "I had set my sights on a man of brains, to whom I could look up", she lamented, "but what a terrible let down it would be to find out that I was smarter than he was."
The pictures for Famous Players-Lasky were not as successful as their previous films, partly because they starred Broadway headliners not adept at screen acting and their contract was not renewed. The scripts carried both names but were mostly products of Loos alone. Later Loos would claim that Emerson took all the money and most of the credit, though his contribution usually consisted of observing from bed as she worked. Much to the chagrin of her friends, her adoration of Emerson had manifested as subservience. When William Randolph Hearst offered Loos a contract to write a picture for his mistress, Marion Davies, Loos included the unnecessary Emerson in the deal. Hearst liked the picture and Getting Mary Married (1919) was one of the few Marion Davies pictures that didn't lose money. In addition to their films, the couple wrote two books: How to Write Photoplays, published in 1920, followed by Breaking Into the Movies in 1921.
Loos and Emerson turned down another picture with Davies, preferring to write for their old friend Constance Talmadge, whose brother-in-law Joseph Schenck (husband of Norma Talmadge) was an independent producer. Both A Temperamental Wife (1919) and A Virtuous Vamp (1919) were great hits for Talmadge. The couple joined the Talmadges and the Schencks at the Ambassador Hotel on Park Avenue, with Constance filling the void left by the loss of her sister. When Anita and Constance weren't working, they went shopping. The Talmadge-Schencks convinced Anita to summer with them in Paris without Emerson. Much of this adventure would end up as fodder for Loos's book Gentlemen Prefer Blondes.
Upon returning, they produced five more films in 16 months. During this time, Loos had filed for divorce from her estranged first husband. Emerson proposed marriage and they were married at the Schenck estate on June 15, 1919. Loos was among the first to join Ruth Hale's Lucy Stone League, an organization that fought for women to preserve their maiden names after marriage as she continued with hers.
The couple moved into a modest Murray Hill apartment and cut back to two films a year in order to travel. They spent the summer in Paris. Loos and her new assistant, John Ashmore Creeland, visited many of the Paris-based writers Loos had met in America, as well as Gertrude Stein, Alice B. Toklas, Elisabeth Marbury and Elsie De Wolfe.
After one more film for Schenck and Talmadge, The Perfect Woman (1920), Emerson refused another contract. After working with Actors Equity during their 1919 strike, he decided that the Loos-Emerson team should make the move to the theater. Their first play, The Whole Town's Talking, which opened at the Bijou Theatre on August 29, 1923, received good reviews and was a moderate box-office success. Soon afterward the couple moved to a small house in Gramercy Park.
Emerson had convinced a devastated Loos that he needed to take a break from the marriage once a week. It was on these days he would date younger women, while Loos consoled herself by entertaining her friends: the Talmadge sisters, "Mama" Peg Talmadge, Marion Davies, Marilyn Miller, Adele Astaire and an assortment of chorus girls kept by prominent men. These "Tuesday Widows" soireés would influence her later writings, and it was with the "Tuesday Widows" that she visited one of her favorite hangouts, Harlem, where she developed a deep and lifelong appreciation for African-American culture. "Sometimes I get enquiries (sic) concerning my marriage to a man who treated me with complete lack of consideration, tried to take credit for my work and appropriated all my earnings", Loos wrote in Cast of Thousands. "The main reason is that my husband liberated me; granted me full freedom to choose my own companions."
Loos had become a devoted admirer of H. L. Mencken, a literary critic and intellect. When he was in New York, she would take a break from her "Tuesday Widows" and join his circle, which included Theodore Dreiser, Sherwood Anderson, Sinclair Lewis, Joseph Hergesheimer, essayist Ernest Boyd and theater critic George Jean Nathan. Loos adored Mencken, but gradually realized disappointingly, "High-IQ gentlemen didn't fall for women with brains, but those with more downstairs". In 1925, on the train to Hollywood with Mencken, she became keenly aware of this fact when he solicited the attention of a blonde in the dining car. Loos then began to write a sketch of Mencken and his vacant lady friends that would later become Gentlemen Prefer Blondes.
Gentlemen Prefer Blondes
Gentlemen Prefer Blondes: The Illuminating Diary of a Professional Lady, began as a series of short sketches published in Harper's Bazaar, known as the "Lorelei" stories. They were satires on the state of sexual relations that only vaguely alluded to sexual intimacy; the magazine's circulation quadrupled overnight. The heroine of the stories, Lorelei Lee, was a bold, ambitious flapper, who was much more concerned with collecting expensive baubles from her conquests than any marriage licenses, in addition to being a shrewd woman of loose morals and high self-esteem. She was a practical young woman who had internalized the materialism of the United States in the 1920s and equated culture with cold cash and tangible assets.
The success of the short stories had the public clamoring for them in book form. Pushed by Mencken, she signed with Boni & Liveright. Modestly published in November 1925, the first printing sold out overnight. The initial reviews were rather bland and unimpressive, but through word of mouth it became the surprise best-seller of 1925. Loos garnered fan letters from fellow authors William Faulkner, Aldous Huxley and Edith Wharton, among others. "Blondes" would see three more printings sell by year's end and 20 more in its first decade. The little book would see 85 editions in the years to come and eventually be translated into 14 languages, including Chinese.
When asked who the models for her characters were, Loos would almost always say they were composites of various people. But when pressed, she admitted that toothless flirt Sir Francis Beekman was modeled after writer Joseph Hergesheimer and producer Jesse L. Lasky. Dorothy Shaw was modeled after herself and Constance Talmadge and Lorelei most closely resembled acquisitive Ziegfeld showgirl Lillian Lorraine, who was always looking for new places to display the diamonds bestowed by her suitors.
Emerson first attempted to suppress its publication and then settled for a personal dedication. Loos continued to be overworked throughout 1926, sometimes working many projects at once. In the spring of 1926 she completed the stage adaptation, which opened a few weeks later in Chicago and ran for 201 performances on Broadway. Emerson had developed a serious case of hypochondria by this time, affecting laryngitis attacks to divert attention from her work; in the words of his wife, "he was a man who enjoyed ill health." It was the opinion of New York psychiatrist, Smith Ely Jelliffe, "that she was to blame and in order for Emerson to get better she would have to give up her career." She resolved to retire after her next book, But Gentlemen Marry Brunettes, a sequel to Blondes that she had promised Harper's Bazaar.
The couple had planned another European vacation, unwell at the last minute, Emerson insisted that Loos continue alone. Arriving in London, she was promptly taken under the wing of socialite Sibyl Colefax, whose drawing room had become filled with "the bright young things" of the day such as John Gielgud, Harold Nicolson, Noël Coward and notables such as Arnold Bennett, Max Beerbohm and Bernard Shaw. Photos of Loos on the London social scene appeared in the New York papers, and the unwell Emerson subsequently joined Loos. To keep his spirits up she took him to the theater every night. It worked; at times he spoke in normal tones. The couple traveled on to Paris as Emerson's recovery continued. In September, their vacation was cut short; Loos was needed back in New York to do revisions on Blondes for its Broadway debut. Despite them, Blondes closed in April 1927.
Leisure time
When But Gentlemen Marry Brunettes was published in 1927, Emerson proposed another European vacation and went ahead of Loos. A seriously ill Loos followed him, coming down with a sinus attack in Vienna. She and the ear, nose and throat specialist who was treating her came up with a method of fixing Emerson's hypochondria. The doctor arranged a bit of sham surgery for him and presented him with the polyps that had been supposedly removed from his vocal cords. This placebo treatment did the trick, they returned with a cured Emerson. Not wanting to undo all her efforts, Loos retired to a life of leisure.
The first film version of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (now lost) was released in 1928 starring Ruth Taylor as Lorelei Lee and Alice White as Dorothy. It was somewhat of a flop. From 1927 to 1929, Loos and Emerson traveled extensively, which was hard on Loos's health. All their winters were spent in Palm Beach, where Emerson would indulge in social climbing. Loos was starved of intellectual male companionship and met Wilson Mizner there, a witty and charming real estate speculator, and in some quarters – confidence man. Though they saw each other every day, the relationship was rumored to have stopped just short of having a full-blown affair. Emerson's throat ailment returned, though he recovered quickly after his second round of "Viennese surgery".
Loos and Emerson traveled to Hollywood for Christmas in 1929 with Loos's new friend, photographer Cecil Beaton, who was part of "the bright young things" crowd. Wilson Mizner had also relocated to Hollywood as a screenwriter. Since Emerson had his own entertainment, Loos was often in the company of Beaton or Mizner. When they returned to New York in the spring of 1930, Emerson expressed his unhappiness at her inattention, threatening a relapse of his throat ailment and Loos would spend much more time alone. Emerson had also lost money in the stock market crash, and suggested she return to work. Loos was not completely unhappy with this, and within a few months had produced a stage adaptation of But Gentlemen Marry Brunettes and a comedy Cherries are Ripe.
With their income reduced, the couple moved to a residential hotel and did less traveling in 1931. Not long after, Loos came upon a love letter from one of Emerson's conquests. Devastated, Loos offered him a divorce; Emerson refused and suggested they live apart, with him giving her a suitable allowance. Blaming herself for his unhappiness, she moved to an apartment on East Sixty-Ninth Street. However, her new life allowed her finally to spend her portion of what she earned for the couple in any way she liked.
When the Emerson-Loos team got an offer to write pictures for Irving Thalberg at MGM, Emerson refused to go. Loos took the $1,000-a-week salary alone.
MGM screenwriter
The first project Thalberg handed Loos was Jean Harlow's Red-Headed Woman because F. Scott Fitzgerald was having no luck adapting Katherine Brush's book. Fitzgerald, an accomplished writer of novels like The Great Gatsby, was fired and replaced by Loos in a predominantly male run studio system. The picture, completed in May 1932, was a smash and established Harlow as a star and put Loos once again in the front rank of screenwriters.
"She was a very valuable asset for MGM, because the studio had so many femmes fatales – Garbo, Crawford, Shearer, and Harlow – that we were always on the lookout for 'shady lady' stories. But they were problematic because of the censorship code. Anita, however, could be counted on to supply the delicate double entendre, the telling innuendo. Whenever we had a Jean Harlow picture on the agenda, we always thought of Anita first." – MGM producer Samuel Marx
Loos moved to an apartment in Hollywood, where she was unexpectedly joined by Emerson. Though Emerson expressed contrition about his previous behavior, he did nothing to change it. While Emerson busied himself offering screen tests to young starlets, Loos was now free to see whomever she pleased, including her now quite ill friend Wilson Mizner. Mizner having abused his body with alcohol and drugs, wasted away until dying on April 3, 1932, a date Loos would continue to mark.
At MGM, Loos happily turned out scripts; however, she frequently had to use Emerson as a conduit to communicate with directors and other executives who balked at dealing with a woman on equal footing. This worked well to promote the idea they were a happy couple and writing team. She bought a modest house in Beverly Hills in 1934. During the day it was work, and at night parties given by other MGM studio executives or stars, like the Thalbergs, the Selznicks and the Goldwyns. Loos was a frequent attendee at George Cukor's Sunday brunches, which was the closest Hollywood had to a literary salon.
In 1935, about the time of the Writer's Guild formation, she was paired with Robert Hopkins, who would later become a frequent collaborator. Their work on San Francisco got an Academy Award nomination for best original screenplay. She based Clark Gable's character on some confidence men she had known, including Wilson Mizner. Thalberg had taken ill again and gave Emerson a two-year contract as a producer at $1,250 a week. By mid-1937 Loos had decided not to renew her contract with MGM; since friend and supporter Thalberg's death in September 1936, things had not been going well at the studio and every film felt like a struggle. She signed with Samuel Goldwyn, formally of MGM and now head of United Artists, for $5,000 a week and almost immediately regretted it. Loos soldiered on, working on "unworkable" scripts.
Life alone
In October Loos and her brother Clifford checked Emerson into a very expensive sanatorium where he was diagnosed with schizophrenia. Loos, who had always left the finances to Emerson, soon discovered that most of her money was no longer in joint accounts but in his own private accounts. Overworked at the studio and under stress from Emerson, she became more and more depressed. Loos promptly bought herself out of her United Artists contract, re-signed with MGM and bought a beach-front house in Santa Monica. After 17 years of marriage in 1937 Loos finally asked Emerson for a divorce and he agreed but would continue to stave off any talk of plans, making finalization impossible. When Emerson was deemed well enough to leave the sanatorium, she paid for a nurse to care for him in an apartment of his own.
MGM had bought the film rights to Clare Boothe Luce's 1936 smash Broadway hit The Women in 1937. Many writers had, unsuccessfully, taken a stab at a screenplay version. The studio handed it to Loos and veteran scriptwriter Jane Murfin, and three weeks later Loos handed Cukor a script that he loved. Unfortunately the censorship board did not. They insisted on changing more than 80 lines and the film had to go into production. Loos was apprehensive, but Cukor insisted she do the changes on set, among his all-star bevy of leading ladies on this female-only picture that included Thalberg widow Norma Shearer, Joan Crawford and Rosalind Russell. Loos made immediate friends with Paulette Goddard who was surprisingly well-read. When Hunt Stromberg, the last producer she respected, left MGM to produce independently; Loos tried to get out of her contract, but by then she had grown into too valuable a property to the studio.
Throughout the war Loos wrote screenplays, grew vegetables in her Victory garden and knitted socks and sweaters for the boys overseas. She also had houseguests Aldous and Maria Huxley, from England, when World War II began in September 1939. Loos convinced Huxley that it would be safer for his family if they stayed in the United States, and she got him a job adapting screenplays at MGM. Privately she had a new partner who had a drinking problem; the relationship would be short-lived and MGM decided to release her from her contract finally.
Return to New York
In the fall of 1946, now a free agent, Loos returned to New York to work on Happy Birthday, a Saroyanesque cocktail party comedy written for Helen Hayes. The play had several false starts the previous year, but now proceeded with Joshua Logan as director, and produced by Rodgers and Hammerstein. It opened in Boston, but the audiences hated it at first. Loos kept improving the script throughout the Boston run; when it opened in New York at the Broadhurst it was a hit and ran for 600 performances. Katharine Hepburn was eager to play in the screen version but the Hollywood censors weren't ready for a woman to be "sloshed on screen for two acts and be rewarded with a happy ending." Loos sold her Santa Monica house to her niece and made certain Emerson understood he would not be joining her in New York under any circumstances.
Once again in New York, she and her long time friend, screenwriter Frances Marion, worked on an unproduced play for Zasu Pitts. A few romances came her way, including Maurice Chevalier. Two Broadway producers wanted a musical version of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes and brought in Joseph Fields as co-author. Loos threatened to quit the production unless assured she would never have to speak to Fields again. The show opened in Philadelphia with a then-unknown Carol Channing. By the time it arrived in New York it was another success. Channing soon was elevated to an A-list star, the show played for 90 weeks and went on tour for another year. The producers closed the show when Channing became pregnant. Herman Levin commented: "I was convinced the show wouldn't work without Carol, and in my opinion it never has." A musical film version was produced in 1953, directed by Howard Hawks and adapted by Charles Lederer. It starred Jane Russell and Marilyn Monroe. Loos had nothing to do with the production, but thought Monroe was inspired casting.
The success of Blondes the second time around meant Loos had a greater profile than ever before. She moved to a more spacious apartment at the Langdon Hotel and bought a car. In 1950 Loos wrote A Mouse is Born, another novel, and once sent to her publisher, she left her first trip to Europe in 20 years. A Mouse is Born had a lukewarm reception, but by then Loos was already working on a dramatic adaptation of Colette's Gigi. The production was under way before Colette wired that she had found their "Gigi"—she had seen Audrey Hepburn in a hotel lobby in Monte Carlo. Gigi opened in the fall of 1951 and would run until the spring of 1952; by then Hepburn had been elevated to an A-list star, contracted to Paramount Pictures.
Loos worked on more adaptations for the next few years during travels while relocating to an apartment on West Fifty-Seventh Street. The apartment was that of Paul Swan, the aging “Most Beautiful Man in the World”. Her next musical, The Amazing Adele starring Tammy Grimes with music by Albert Selden, never got off the ground and swiftly closed. Both Emerson and Helen Hayes' husband, Charles MacArthur, died within a few weeks of each other and the women threw themselves into their work together, with Loos working on an adaptation for Hayes' filming Anastasia in London. Loos worked and traveled even while being treated for a painful hand ailment that prevented her from writing. In 1959 Loos opened another Colette adaptation, Chéri, with Kim Stanley and Horst Buchholz in the title roles, but it ran for only two months.
Memoirist
Loos continued writing as a magazine contributor, appearing regularly in Harper's Bazaar, Vanity Fair and The New Yorker. Biographer Gary Carey notes: "She was a born storyteller and was always in peak form when reshaping a real-life encounter to make an amusing anecdote." Loos began a volume of memoirs, A Girl Like I, published in September 1966. Her 1972 book, Twice Over Lightly: New York Then and Now, was written in collaboration with friend and actress Helen Hayes. Kiss Hollywood Good-by (1974) was a Hollywood memoir about her MGM years and would be very successful, while her book, The Talmadge Girls (1978) is about the actress sisters Constance Talmadge and Norma Talmadge specifically.
Loos would become a virtual New York institution, an assiduous partygoer and diner-out; conspicuous at fashion shows, theatrical and movie events, balls and galas. A celebrity anecdotalist, she was also never one to let facts spoil a good story: With each book came a new spate of interviews and as one of the last survivors of the silent era, Anita's stories became more exaggerated and she was soon reported to have sold her first scenario at the age of 12. She continued to thrive on interesting people and interesting activities – and held an opinion on everything – but worked hard on keeping the vivacious and flippant image and hiding her loneliness. She once commented, "I've enjoyed my happiest moments when trailing a Mainbocher evening gown across the sawdust-covered floor of a saloon."
She was interviewed in the television documentary series Hollywood: A Celebration of the American Silent Film (1980).
Death
After spending several weeks with a lung infection, Anita Loos suffered a heart attack and died in Manhattan's Doctors Hospital in New York City at the age of 93. At the memorial service, friends Helen Hayes, Ruth Gordon, and Lillian Gish, regaled the mourners with humorous anecdotes and Jule Styne played songs from Loos's musicals, including "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend".
Popular culture
Loos is portrayed in a thinly disguised manner by Tatum O'Neal in Peter Bogdanovich's look back at early silent filmmaking in the film Nickelodeon.
Works
Fiction
Gentlemen Prefer Blondes: The Intimate Diary of a Professional Lady. NY: Boni & Liveright, 1925
But Gentlemen Marry Brunettes. NY: Boni & Liveright, 1927
A Mouse Is Born. NY: Doubleday & Company, 1951
No Mother to Guide Her. NY: McGraw Hill, 1961
Fate Keeps On Happening: Adventures Of Lorelei Lee And Other Writings. NY: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1984
Nonfiction
w/John Emerson How to Write Photoplays NY: James A McCann, 1920
w/John Emerson. Breaking Into the Movies. NY: James A McCann, 1921
"This Brunette Prefers Work", Woman's Home Companion, 83 (March 1956)
A Girl Like I. NY:Viking Press, 1966
w/Helen Hayes. Twice Over Lightly: New York Then and Now. NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972
Kiss Hollywood Good-by. NY: Viking Press, 1974
Cast of Thousands: a pictorial memoir of the most glittering stars of Hollywood. NY: Grosset and Dunlap, 1977
The Talmadge Girls. NY: Viking Press, 1978
Broadway credits
The Whole Town's Talking (1923)
The Fall of Eve (1925)
Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1926)
The Social Register (1931)
Happy Birthday (1946)
Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1949)
Gigi (1951)
Chéri (1959)
The King's Mare (1967)
Lorelei (1974)
Film credits
My Baby (1912; writer)
The Musketeers of Pig Alley (1912; writer)
The New York Hat (1912; writer)
A Narrow Escape (1913; scenario)
The Wedding Gown (1913; scenario)
His Hoodoo (1913; scenario; story "The Making of a Masher")
Pa Says (1913; story "The Queen of the Carnival")
A Cure for Suffragettes (1913; story)
A Fallen Hero (1913; story)
A Horse on Bill (1913; story)
Binks' Vacation (1913; story)
Highbrow Love (1913; story)
How the Day Was Saved (1913; story)
Oh, Sammy! (1913; story)
The Hicksville Epicure (1913; story)
The Power of the Camera (1913; story)
The Suicide Pact (1913; story)
His Awful Vengeance (1913; writer)
The Lady in Black (1913; writer)
The Mistake (1913; writer)
The Telephone Girl and the Lady (1913; writer)
The Widow's Kids (1913; writer)
The Sisters (1914/I; scenario)
A Lesson in Mechanics (1914; scenario)
Nearly a Burglar's Bride (1914; scenario)
Some Bull's Daughter (1914; scenario)
The Deceiver (1914; scenario)
The Road to Plaindale (1914; scenario)
The Saving Grace (1914; scenario)
The Saving Presence (1914; scenario)
A Corner in Hats (1914; story)
A Flurry in Art (1914; story)
Gentleman or Thief (1914; story)
Nell's Eugenic Wedding (1914; story)
The Fatal Dress Suit (1914; story)
The Man on the Couch (1914; story)
The Million Dollar Bride (1914; story)
The Gangsters of New York (1914; uncredited)
A Bunch of Flowers (1914; writer)
Billy's Rival (1914; writer)
For Her Father's Sins (1914; writer)
Izzy and His Rival (1914; writer)
The Girl in the Shack (1914; writer)
The Hunchback (1914; writer)
The Last Drink of Whiskey (1914; writer)
The White Slave Catchers (1914; writer)
When the Road Parts (1914; writer)
A Ten-Cent Adventure (1915; scenario)
Mixed Values (1915; scenario)
The Deacon's Whiskers (1915; scenario)
The Lost House (1915; scenario)
The Fatal Finger Prints (1915; writer)
Stranded (1916/I; writer)
Macbeth (1916; intertitles)
A Calico Vampire (1916; scenario)
Laundry Liz (1916; scenario)
The French Milliner (1916; scenario)
The Americano (1916; scenario; titles)
The Wharf Rat (1916; screenplay; story)
A Corner in Cotton (1916; story)
American Aristocracy (1916; story)
Intolerance: Love's Struggle Throughout the Ages (1916; titles)
The Mystery of the Leaping Fish (1916; titles)
A Wild Girl of the Sierras (1916; writer)
His Picture in the Papers (1916; writer)
The Children Pay (1916; writer)
The Half-Breed (1916; writer)
The Little Liar (1916; writer)
The Matrimaniac (1916; writer)
The Social Secretary (1916; writer)
In Again, Out Again (1917/II; writer)
A Daughter of the Poor (1917; writer)
Down to Earth (1917; writer)
Reaching for the Moon (1917; writer)
Wild and Woolly (1917; writer)
Good-Bye, Bill (1918; screenplay; producer; story Gosh Darn the Kaiser)
Hit-the-Trail Holliday (1918; writer)
Let's Get a Divorce (1918; writer)
Come on In (1918; writer; producer)
A Virtuous Vamp (1919; scenario)
A Temperamental Wife (1919; scenario; producer)
Oh, You Women! (1919; scenario; story)
Under the Top (1919; story)
Getting Mary Married (1919; writer)
The Isle of Conquest (1919; writer)
The Branded Woman (1920; adaptation)
Dangerous Business (1920; producer; writer)
Two Weeks (1920; scenario)
The Perfect Woman (1920; screenplay; story)
The Love Expert (1920; writer; producer)
In Search of a Sinner (1920; writer; producer; uncredited)
Woman's Place (1921; story)
Mama's Affair (1921; writer)
Polly of the Follies (1922; screenplay; story)
Red Hot Romance (1922; screenplay; story; executive producer)
Dulcy (1923; writer)
Three Miles Out (1924; writer)
Learning to Love (1925; screenplay; story)
The Whole Town's Talking (1926; play)
Stranded (1927; story)
Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1928; novel; screenplay; titles)
The Fall of Eve (1929; story)
Ex-Bad Boy (1931; story "The Whole Town's Talking")
The Struggle (1931; writer)
Blondie of the Follies (1932; dialogue)
Red-Headed Woman (1932; writer)
Hold Your Man (1933; screenplay; story)
Midnight Mary (1933; story)
The Barbarian (1933; writer)
The Girl from Missouri (1934; original screenplay)
The Cat and the Fiddle (1934; screenplay contributor; uncredited)
Social Register (1934; story)
Biography of a Bachelor Girl (1935; writer)
Riffraff (1936; screenplay)
San Francisco (1936; writer)
Saratoga (1937; screenplay; story)
Mama Steps Out (1937; writer)
The Cowboy and the Lady (1938; contributing writer; uncredited)
Another Thin Man (1939; contributing writer; uncredited)
The Women (1939; screenplay)
Babes in Arms (1939; uncredited)
Strange Cargo (1940; adaptation; uncredited)
Susan and God (1940; screenplay)
Blossoms in the Dust (1941; screenplay)
When Ladies Meet (1941; screenplay)
They Met in Bombay (1941; writer)
I Married an Angel (1942; screenplay)
A Tree Grows in Brooklyn (1945 uncredited)
The Buick Circus Hour (1952; teleplays)
Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953; play)
Gentlemen Marry Brunettes (1955; novel "But Gentlemen Marry Brunettes")
Producers' Showcase "Happy Birthday" (1956; writer)
See also
References
References
Bibliography
Loos, R. Beers. "Anita's Dad Spills the Frijoles," Photoplay, August 1928, p. 47.
External links
Anita Loos at the Women Film Pioneers Project
Anita Loos papers, 1917–1981, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
Anita Loos papers, 1917-1979 at Houghton Library, Harvard University
AFI Catalog entry for Anita Loos
Some contemporary articles and interviews with Anita Loos
1888 births
1981 deaths
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American memoirists
Screenwriters from New York (state)
American women dramatists and playwrights
American women novelists
American women screenwriters
People from Great Neck, New York
People from Mount Shasta, California
American women memoirists
Writers from Los Angeles
Novelists from New York (state)
Writers from San Francisco
Novelists from California
Women film pioneers
People from Siskiyou County, California
Screenwriters from California
People from Gramercy Park
Writers from Manhattan
20th-century American screenwriters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassel%2C%20Nord
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Cassel, Nord
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Cassel (; ) is a commune in the Nord départment in northern France. Built on a prominent hill overlooking French Flanders, the town has existed since Roman times. It was developed by the Romans into an important urban centre and was the focus of a network of roads, which are still in use today, that converge on the hill. After the fall of the Roman Empire, Cassel became an important fortified stronghold for the rulers of Flanders which was repeatedly fought over before finally being annexed to France in the 17th century. It was the headquarters of Marshal Ferdinand Foch during part of the First World War. In 1940, during the German invasion of France, Cassel was the scene of a fierce three-day battle between British forces (led in part by Major Ronald Cartland, MP) and German forces which resulted in much of the town being destroyed.
The town, which was rebuilt following the war, is a popular destination for visitors to French Flanders. It is renowned for its extensive views from the summit of Mont Cassel and is the location of the Nord départment's principal museum of local art, history and folklore. It is also the home of the legendary giants Reuze-Papa and Reuze-Maman, which are paraded in effigy each Easter during the town's annual carnival.
Geography
The town of Cassel is situated at the top of Mont Cassel (), a prominent hill located in the local Houtland region about from the sea. The hill rises to a height of above sea level. Its geological composition comprises limestone capped with a very hard ferruginous layer of rock.
History
Ancient times
The hill of Mont Cassel was occupied during the late Iron Age by the Menapii, a Belgic tribe, who made it the capital of a large territory extending from modern Calais to as far as the Rhine. The hilltop was probably used as an oppidum or hill fort. The Menapii fought against Julius Caesar but were forced to submit to Rome in 53 BC. They rebelled along with their neighbours, the Morini, in 30 or 29 BC. The Roman governor of Gaul, Carrinas, successfully quelled the rebellion and the territory of the Menapii was subsequently absorbed into the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. Cassel was redeveloped as Castellum Menapiorum, the urban centre or civitas of the Menapii; the modern town takes its name from the Roman settlement.
From the 1st century AD onwards, Cassel developed into a key urban centre for the whole region with an extensive road network converging on the hill. Towards the end of the 3rd century, however, repeated invasions of Germanic tribes caused devastation throughout the region and at least 80% of settlements in the area are thought to have been abandoned, accompanied by a general economic decline. Cassel was fortified with a circuit of walls at around this time but suffered its own decline, which was reflected in its loss of status as a regional capital; Tournai took over as the capital of the newly constituted Civitas Turnacensium.
Medieval period
Following the collapse of the Roman Empire, Flanders became part of the Merovingian realm of Neustria. In the 9th century it became part of West Francia, forming a pagus within the kingdom of Charles the Bald. In 864, Cassel passed into the hands of Baldwin Ironarm, who expanded his holdings to become the first count of the County of Flanders. At the time, the town was on the edge of a deep bay of the North Sea, making it vulnerable to raids by the Vikings, who attacked and destroyed it in the 9th century. It was rebuilt by Baldwin's grandson, Arnulf I, in the 10th century.
In 1071, the sixth Count of Flanders, Arnulf III, was killed in the first Battle of Cassel by the forces of Robert the Frisian in a dispute over the succession to the title of count. Although Arnulf was numerically superior and was supported by King Philip I of France, Robert was able to defeat his rival's army and took the title of Count of Flanders with the acquiescence of Philip I after a further five years of struggle. The town was re-fortified, possibly by Robert, with a castle and a new set of walls built on the remains of the old Roman walls. The castle does not survive today—it was already in ruins by the early 18th century—but is depicted on old engravings as a large square tower, the Tour Grise, dominating the western flank of the hill.
Cassel was the capital of a chatellany (an administrative district) during the Middle Ages, serving as the administrative centre for an area comprising about fifty towns and villages. It was the site of a second battle that took place on 23 August 1328 involving Philip VI of France and a rebel force led by Nicolaas Zannekin. The rebels had driven the ruling Count Louis I out of Flanders and sought to press their advantage by occupying Cassel and attacking the French royal army nearby. Although they achieved some initial successes, the rebels were decisively defeated when William I, Count of Hainaut lent his support to the French side.
Early modern period
By end of the 16th century Cassel had become a border town between France and the Spanish Netherlands. The French repeatedly fought with Spain and later the independent Dutch Republic for control of the town; in March 1645, Gaston, Duke of Orléans seized it but lost it again to the Spanish a few months later. In 1658 Turenne expelled two Irish regiments in the pay of the Spanish who were garrisoning Cassel. The French captured the town in July 1676 under Louis de Crevant, Duke of Humières and strengthened the castle. The following year, a third battle of Cassel took place just west of the town on 11 April 1677 when a French army under François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg and Philippe I of Orléans defeated Dutch forces commanded by William III of England. The battle took place after King Louis XIV of France besieged the Dutch-held town of Saint-Omer during the Franco–Dutch War. William sent an army to relieve Saint-Omer but was defeated at the village of Zuytpeene just to the west of Cassel, losing 7,000–8,000 men killed or wounded and another 4,000 taken prisoner. Saint-Omer fell a week later.
Cassel was annexed to France the following year under the terms of the Treaty of Nijmegen, which ended the war. The annexation led to the town's defences being dismantled; it was considered indefensible, as it was within easy firing range of the nearby Mont des Récollets, and it would have cost far too much to fortify both hills. In addition, the revised frontier following the treaty was now a significant distance from Cassel and without the proximity of the border, the town was no longer seen as having much strategic significance.
During the French Revolutionary Wars, Cassel is said to have been the hill up which the Grand Old Duke of York marched his 10,000 men before he "marched them down again". While it is true that Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, did command an army in the Flanders Campaign of 1793 and was probably in the vicinity, the link with Cassel is considered dubious as the eponymous nursery rhyme appears to have originated well before the Revolutionary Wars.
19th century
The population of Cassel grew to about 4,200 people by the mid-19th century. Benjamin Disraeli, later to become Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, stayed there for a month in September–October 1845 and wrote in a letter to his sister Sarah that he considered it "an extremely savage place; few of the inhabitants, & none of the humbler classes, talk French, there is no library, bookseller's shop, nor newspaper of any sort ... It is quite French Flanders, their provisions come from Holland, the Hotel de Ville was built by the Spaniards, the carillons are perpetually sounding, & religion is supreme."
In 1848, Cassel gained a railway connection when the Lille-Dunkirk line was built. The station is, however, at the foot of the hill at Oxelaëre some from the centre of Cassel. To link the two places, an electric tramway was built under the auspices of the Compagnie des Tramways de Cassel, which operated between 1900 and 1934. It was replaced by a bus link which still operates today.
20th century
Cassel served as the headquarters of Marshal Ferdinand Foch during the early part of the First World War, between October 1914 and May 1915. Foch had previously been based at Doullens north of Amiens, but removed his headquarters to Cassel to take advantage of its strategic position near the northern end of the Western Front and to be closer to the Belgian headquarters at Veurne. From 1916-1918, Cassel was the headquarters for the British Second Army under Sir Herbert Plumer. The town avoided significant damage during the war, though it came under occasional shellfire when the Germans advanced to within during the Battle of the Lys in April 1918.
In the Second World War, the 2nd Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment and the 4th Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry held Cassel for three days as part of the defensive screen around Dunkirk during the Battle of Dunkirk and evacuation (27 May 1940 – 30 May 1940). The British forces had prepared a defence on the hilltop, emplacing anti-tank guns and barricading the narrow streets of the town. After scoring initial successes against the tanks of Panzer Regiment 11, which had made the mistake of advancing without infantry support, the British garrison was heavily attacked from the ground and the air by German forces. Much of the town was reduced to ruins by bombing. Most of the garrison's members were killed or captured by the Germans during the fighting or the subsequent attempted breakout towards Dunkirk, but the defence they had put up played an important role in holding up the Germans while the Dunkirk evacuation was taking place.
Heraldry
Sights and culture
The Jardin des Mont du Récollets provides expansive views over the plains of Flanders and beyond; on a clear day it is possible to see the North Sea, the English coast and the belfry of Bruges. It used to be said that from Cassel one could see five kingdoms: France, Belgium, Holland, England and Heaven. The garden also hosts an equestrian statue of Marshal Foch and the Monument des Trois Batailles, commemorating the battles of 1071, 1328 and 1677. Just below the gardens is the Porte du Château of 1621, the last substantial part of the old castle to remain standing. The city walls no longer stand but footpaths and streets still trace their former course.
The Kasteel Meulen ("Castle Windmill") is a post mill situated on the highest point of Mont Cassel on the site of the former castle. A windmill constructed here in the 16th century burned down on 30 October 1911. It was replaced in 1947 by an 18th-century windmill that was moved from nearby Arnèke, one of around twenty that once existed in the area. The mill is open to the public and still operates daily during the high season.
The Hôtel de la Noble Cour (also known as the Landshuys) off Cassel's Grande Place houses the Musée de Flandre, which opened in 2010. The museum presents the art, history and folklore of the French Flanders region. Built in the 16th century under Spanish rule, the mansion's stone-built façade (unusual for Flanders) is decorated in a French Renaissance style and has unusual carvings of grotesque heads, mythical beasts and other figures. The building originally housed the "Noble Court" of the Lords of Cassel, who had authority over a swathe of territory from Ypres in modern Belgium to Saint-Omer.
The Collégiale Notre-Dame de la Crypte is Cassel's main church, built in brick. Parts date from the 11th century but the main part is a 16th-century Gothic structure of a design known as a hallekerk or hall-church, peculiar to Flanders and Artois. It comprises a huge rectangular space with three gables, three aisles, three apses and a square tower over the transept. During his stay in Cassel during the First World War, Marshal Foch regularly prayed here.
Events
Like several other Flemish towns, Cassel commemorates legendary giants in annual processions. The town's two giants are Reuze-Papa (Father Giant, also known as Le Reuze) and Reuze-Maman (Mother Giant, also known as La Reuzaine). They are and in weight and and high, respectively. The current effigies date from 1827 and 1860 respectively, though the tradition dates from the 16th century (when Reuze-Papa was known as Titenka). Reuze-Papa is depicted as a bearded man wearing a Roman-style breastplate and helm, while Reuze-Maman used to be depicted as a shrimp fisher carrying a basket on her back but is now shown wearing a diadem, a red robe and a golden shawl. The couple had their first child, Kint'je, in 1900, followed by Pietje, Boutje and a baby daughter, Meisje. They are escorted by six bodyguards named Allowyn, Dagobert, Gélon, Goliath, Roland and Samson, who all wear Roman dress. The giants commemorate a tradition that the hill of Cassel was created when a couple of giants were carrying a huge mound of earth but tripped, spilling the earth on the ground and forming the hill. The figures make their appearances each year around Easter, when they are paraded around Cassel during the annual carnival. For the rest of the year they are looked after by the association of the amis du Reuze. They are registered as UNESCO "intangible cultural heritage" treasures.
Politics
Presidential Elections 2nd Round
Gallery
See also
Communes of the Nord department
French Flemish
Notes
References
INSEE commune file
Communes of Nord (French department)
Menapii
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.%20Eric%20S.%20Thompson
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J. Eric S. Thompson
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Sir John Eric Sidney Thompson, KBE (31 December 1898 – 9 September 1975) was a leading English Mesoamerican archaeologist, ethnohistorian, and epigrapher. While working in the United States, he dominated Maya studies and particularly the study of the Maya script until well into the 1960s.
Biography
Early life
Thompson was born on 31 December 1898 to father George Thompson, a distinguished surgeon and fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. Thompson was raised in the family home on Harley Street in London. At the age of 14 he was sent to Winchester College to receive an independent education.
In 1915, at the beginning of World War I, Thompson used the assumed name Neil Winslow to join the British Army while underage. A year into service he was wounded and sent home to recover, first in Huddersfield then Seaford. He continued to serve in the Coldstream Guards until the end of the war, ending his service at the rank of officer.
After the war Thompson left for Argentina to work as a gaucho on a family cattle farm. When he returned to England in the early 1920s Thompson published his first article on his experience in Argentina, titled A Cowboy's Experience: Cattle Branding in the Argentine in the Southwark Diocesan Gazette.
Education
Thompson first considered a medical or political career. However, he later decided to study anthropology at Fitzwilliam House, Cambridge under A.C. Haddon. With the completion of his degree in 1925 Thompson wrote to Sylvanus G Morley, the head of the Carnegie Institution's project at Chichen Itza, to ask for a job, inquiring about a field position. Morley accepted Thompson, most likely due to the fact that Thompson had previously taught himself to read Maya hieroglyphic dates, an accomplishment that was highly valued by Morley who also had a passion for Maya hieroglyphics.
Early career
In 1926 Thompson arrived in the Yucatan of Mexico under the direction of Morley to work at Chichen Itza. Here he started working on the friezes of the Temple of the Warriors. In his autobiography, Maya Archaeologist (1936), Thompson referred to the friezes as "a sort of giant jigsaw puzzle made worse by the fact the stones had been carved before being placed in position" accurately describing his first field experience.
Later that year Morley sent Thompson to report on the site of Coba, located to the east of Chichen Itza. During the first field season at Coba, Thompson deciphered the dates on the Macanxoc stela. Morley, the foremost epigrapher, did not originally agree with the readings of the dates. It was not until a return trip to Coba that Morley was persuaded by Thompson's readings, marking his emergence as a prominent scholar in the field of Maya epigraphy. Within the next year, Thompson took post as the Assistant Curator at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. He would work there until 1935 when he left for a position at the Carnegie Institution in Washington, D.C.
In 1926, while employed by the Field Museum, Thompson, under the supervision of Thomas A. Joyce and the British Museum, took part in an expedition to Lubaantun in British Honduras. It was the fieldwork at Lubaantun that led Thompson to disagree with Joyce's argument for the early "megalith" and "in-and-out" style of architectural stratigraphy. Thompson argued that the "in-and-out" constructions were due to root action. This root action disturbed the construction by pushing the rocks out in the fashion of the "in-and out" construction that invalidated Joyce's argument.
Field work
Toward the end of the first season at Lubaantun, the site of Pusilha was discovered and Thompson was sent to investigate with his guide, Faustino Bol. Thompson's subsequent interactions with his guide, who was a Mopan Maya, would later shed light on how Thompson viewed the ancient Maya and their culture. As a result of their long conversations, Thompson concluded that is "was clear that archaeological excavations were not the only means of learning about the ancient ways." This led to his first monograph, Ethnology of the Mayas of Southern and Central British Honduras (1930) which gave insight into the problems of Maya archaeological and epigraphic through the use of ethnographic and ethno-historic data.
In 1931, Thompson and Thomas Gann teamed up to publish The History of the Maya from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Additionally, Thompson started on a new field project at the site of San Jose in (now) Belize. Here his research was focused at an "average" Maya center in which the stratigraphy produced a ceramic sequence from the Preclassic Period to the Terminal Classic Period. The field report, published in 1939, contained Anna O. Shepard's appendix on the temporal changes in ceramic material, which was the first use of "archaeological sciences".
Thompson was able to produce ceramic sequences at the sites of Tzimin Kax, San Jose, and Xunantunich. These sequences allowed for sites which lacked inscribed monuments traditionally used for dating, to produce a tentative date. The patterns presented by the data from the Petén region and Uaxactun allowed for these sites to fit within the cultural development of the Maya lowlands. In 1938, Thompson added to ceramic sequence, the discovery of the site of La Milpa. This sequence would hold strong until Gordon Willey's research at Barton Ramie, which would lead to a sequence. The field season at La Milpa would be one of the last ones for Thompson, though he was not aware of this at the time of his publication of Maya Archaeologist.
Professional career
While Thompson continued to publish on chronology, during the 1940s his main goal was to decipher the non-calendric hieroglyphs which composed the majority of the unread texts. Of the eight papers he published in 1943, half were on epigraphic research. Thompson's particular epigraphic focus was on the fish symbol and directional glyphs. Additionally, outside of epigraphy, Thompson investigated tattooing and tobacco use by the ancient Maya.
In The Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization, Arthur Demarest characterizes Thompson as engendering a traditional view of Maya society or essentially one of "gentlemen scholars" of the earlier part of the 20th century. This perspective stems from an elitist tradition is biased since it presents the Maya myopically. Additionally Thompson presented the Maya as practicing slash and burn agriculture since it fit well into models which presented the Maya as dispersed people. Thompson depicted the Maya public life as being solely centered on "theocratic" ceremonial centers dedicated to worship of great cycles of time and celestial bodies; a view that is now considered an oversimplification. With the help of Dr. A.V. Kidder, Thompson (1943) wrote, A Trial Survey of the Southern Maya Area, describing sites, such as; Kaminaljuyui, Miraflores, and Copan. The article by Thompson assumes that the Maya were ultimately "peaceful" people since they lacked apparent defenses. He again stresses the widespread abandonment of ceremonial centers. He refers to the decline in arts and architecture as "Balkanization," a period which he views as experiencing political disintegration. He is also responsible for the long-held belief that the Aztecs, a "highly war-like" society according to the text, were directly involved in overthrowing what he thought were priest-rulers.
Thompson was an accomplished author, publishing text books and findings in academic journals all over the United States. In his article, A Survey of the North Maya Area, Thompson (1945) describes how researchers ought to employ a historical framework in archaeological studies. Additionally he details his finds in the Northern Maya region whilst making suggestions as to which types of ceramics were adopted. He identified phases: the formative period, the Initial Series, transition period, Mexican period, and Mexican absorption period, in Maya development which set a precedent for the field in a number of ways.
He theorized that the formative period began prior to A.D. 325 and was characterized by monochrome pottery in Chicanel style as well as giant pyramids. However he believed that the Maya did not have any carved stelae during this point in history. Currently, it is believed that the Preclassic period actually occurred earlier than Thompson originally surmised. The Initial Series period is prostrated as the Classic phase in Maya ceramic styles. He grouped them into two halves. The first half 325 A.D. to 625 is characterized by basal flange bowls, and hieroglyphic stelae and lintels in mostly centralized areas. The second half 625 A.D. to 900 is indicative of Z fine orange ware, and slate wares. In addition, Puuc, Chenes, and Rio Bec began to develop distinct styles. The Transition period 900 A.D. to 987 the Mayanist felt that there were no identifiable pottery types, he remarked on the fall of Chichen Itza, the abandonment of Puuc/Chenes/Rio Bec, and how Mexican influences were becoming stronger. According to Thompson, the Mexican period marked a decline in Maya civilization and ceramic styles due to conflict between Mesoamerican polities. He postulated that this era saw an end to hieroglyphic texts and increased worship of Mexican cosmology in place of Maya deities. The architectural styles were a mix of Tula and Maya features. He also claimed that the Mexican Absorption Period 1204 A.D. to 1540 was characterized by the abandonment of most major cities, and that artistic innovation only were produced at low levels.
Although Thompson has contributed a considerable amount of research to Mesoamerican studies his interpretations have been proven to be flawed or inconsistent with new investigations. He maintained a venerable air of dissent in the archaeological community. Archaeologist Jeremiah Epstein posed that Thompson was wrong in his characterization of the Maya water transportation. He may have based his analysis of misinterpreted Spanish translations of the Motul Maya word for sail. "Bub" is a 16th-century Spanish interpretation, but may characterize Spanish vessels as opposed to Maya. Sails are not represented in prehistoric Mesoamerican iconography or texts, instead, it is theorized that canoes were used as a primary mode of water transportation for the ancient Maya. In fact, the only place where sails allegedly appear to be represented in prehistoric contexts are in graffiti at Tikal, however, further research poses that the illustration does not depicts sails since there is no supplemental evidence of marine life or water sources (191). In addition, Maya numerous texts make no historical references to sails; they may not have been very utilitarian for the Maya, instead, the overwhelming majority of sources refer to canoes. It appears that Thompson did not consider a Post Conquest context for sails.
Another author Matthew Watson portrays Thompson as a significant figure in Mesoamerican studies, however, in conjunction with Bruno Latour, the author believes that the famous Mayanist, along with Merle Greene Robertson, and Linda Schele used specific techniques known as "mechanical objectivity" and "trained judgement" which essentially reduces the diversity of Maya artistic traditions to that of modernist texts. This approach ignores a context-driven archaeological empiricism, adding to Thompson's many biased assumptions about how the ancient Maya lived.
Moreover, archaeologist Traci Ardren feels that Thompson appeared to have made the mistake of conflating, or merging several cosmological entities into one. He famously misinterpreted the Maya Moon Goddess Ix Chel, basing his research again on mistranslated Spanish texts. He believed as modern Maya do now that the Moon Goddess is the wife of the Sun God. Ardren's article claims, "Thompson interpreted the different glyphic phrases or names associated with the younger set as various tides for the same goddess, a deity he had already assumed to represent the moon". Ardren recognizes that the concept an all-encompassing, unifying female entity is directly influenced by western philosophical movements and androcentric bias.
In tandem with other critics, Marshall J. Becker (1979) reviews Thompson's assumptions about Classic Maya settlement patterns and social structure and how his influence affected later theories regarding complexity in Mesoamerican culture. His article describes scholars; such as Gann, who critiqued Thompson's work. Gann and Thompson would later coauthor a text in which "Thompson stated...his popularized idea that the Maya lived in small agricultural settlements while the religious centers were uninhabited, while Gann suggested just the opposite. This divergence from the complex model, however, only appeared in Thompson's popular work." Furthermore, Becker characterizes more modern research as integrative, enabling studies to connect emerging insights about Maya urbanization/complexity with supportive archaeological evidence. Becker concludes that Thompson's research was both incomplete and incorrect, however, contemporary research is fighting to correct false claims in conjunction with other disciplines. The article distinguishes between two major theoretical concepts that dominated Maya archaeology for decades; Thompson's "priest-peasant" hypothesis and Borgheyi's concept of ranked social classes. Becker deconstructs Thompson's biased narratives, considering them to be a product of Thompson's English heritage and socio-political orientation which he later projected on to his research. Borgheyi's hypothesis is considered as more indicative of what Maya society might actually be like as opposed to Thompson whose claims were generally viewed as unfounded. Additionally, Becker mentions how defining "limits" often creates interpretive issues for scholars, it is an important observation in a whole range of archaeological settings; still affecting research today.
Unfortunately, Thompson's assumptions about Maya elites were misguided. Husband and wife archaeologist team Chase and Chase discusses the significance of the Caracol Archaeological Project which celebrated its 30th consecutive year of field research in 2014. Their research reveals the inconsistent interpretations of past Mayanists like Thompson. Thompson proposed that the Maya socially organized themselves around a two-tiered class system; a view prostrated by Harvard academic traditions. As of current, Caracol is recognized as being essential to evaluating urbanization and large-scale organization of Maya cities. Representing the Penn State academic tradition, Chase and Chase specifically describe how, upon their initial arrival at the site, two theoretical framework purported by Thompson and Borgheyi dominated Caracol, but were later rejected because of evidence stemming from long-term research. The authors found that divisions between elites and lower classes were not as stark or simply as previously suggested, moreover, there is evidence for a prominent middle-class which Thompson did not consider. Ultimately, Thompson did not have access to accurate population estimates or entire maps of settlement patterns, making it difficult for him to assess realistic organizational principles of the Maya.
Nonetheless, the Mayanist knew the limitations of archaeological research. One of Thompson's later articles Estimates of Maya Population: Deranging Factors is an attempt to identify deranging factors for population estimates of the ancient Maya. Determining population sizes is still an issue that plagues archaeologists (214). He draws attention to the ancient Maya tendency to "abandon" a hut after the death of its owner which may invariably skew population estimates. Additionally, Thompson writes about the mobilizing capabilities of the ancient Maya and their long-standing tradition of moving from site to site in order to exploit local resources. Using the modern Maya as an example, he urged other archaeologists to consider hut-abandonment, and movement as major issues. In fact, determining whether or not a site is continuously occupied is still a huge part of archaeological limits today. Moreover, Thompson contends that house-moving was not a major issues for the Maya since building materials were abundant (215). In his conclusion he feels that mounds also may be an indication of decreased population sizes and a time of "growing unrest."
Thompson's focus on the non-calendric hieroglyphs produced the monumental Carnegie monograph Maya Hieroglyphic Writing: Introduction. Thompson did groundbreaking work in the deciphering of Maya hieroglyphics. Notably, his contributions to the field of Maya epigraphic studies included advancements in our understanding of the calendar and astronomy, the identification of new nouns, and the development of a numerical cataloguing system for the glyphs (the T-number system), which are still used today. His attempted decipherments were based on ideographic rather than linguistic principles, and he was a staunch critic of all attempts to propose phonetic readings. In his later years, he resisted the notion that the glyphs have a phonetic component, as put forward by Russian linguist Yuri Knorozov. Thompson forcefully criticised Knorozov's research, which discouraged the majority of the field from taking the latter's work seriously.
Thompson wrote about hieroglyphic writing in great detail. In Systems of Hieroglyphic Writing in Middle America and Methods of Deciphering Them, the famed Mayanist critiqued some of the historical inconsistencies associated with Diego de Landa's informants. He warned other archaeologists that the translation may be inaccurate since the informant through personal agency may have intentionally deceived the Spaniards or the informant did not supply material for reading Maya texts using syllabic systems because "none existed" at the time. He also scathingly claimed that Knorozov overwhelmingly misidentified Landa's hieroglyphs, adding to confusion. However it was later proven that many of Knorozov's speculations that the Maya language was phonetic and ideographic were accurate. Further discussed are Nahuatl language and writing where he again reasserted that the Maya did not have a phonetic language system, instead, he thought they only identified specific places and people (352). He thought that their writing had strong implications between good and bad. Furthermore, he characterized the preconquest Mexican codices as having a form of "rebus" writing (352-353). Thompson also expressed interest in the "divinatory" significance of the Dresden and Madrid codices (357).
Thompson supported Morley's contention that the inscriptions were purely esoteric and religious texts, with no elements of history or politics, until the early 1960s, when the work of Tatiana Proskouriakoff on the inscriptions of Piedras Negras made him realise that his view had been "completely mistaken."
Thompson continued to work with epigraphic and ethnohistoric problems until the end of his career. As he himself noted, he belonged to the last generation of "generalists", engaging in activities ranging from finding and mapping new sites and excavation to the study of Maya ceramics, art, iconography, epigraphy, and ethnology (on the side). Thompson sought to present the Maya to the general public with publications such as the Rise and fall of the Maya Civilization (1954) and Maya Hieroglyphs without Tears (1972).
Post-professional life
Thompson was awarded four honorary doctorates in three different countries, along with being awarded the Order of Isabel la Catolica by Spain, the Aztec Eagle by Mexico in 1965 and the Order of the Quetzal by Guatemala during his last trip to the Maya lands with the Queen of the United Kingdom in 1975. Thompson was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1975 a few days after his 76th birthday, becoming the first New World archaeologist to receive this honoured distinction. He died nine months later on 9 September 1975 in Cambridge, and was laid to rest in Ashdon, Essex, England. Although parts of his legacy are now outdated, Thompson undoubtedly is one of the greatest Mayanists of the 20th century.
See also
Madrid Codex (Maya)
Yuri Knorozov
Tatiana Proskouriakoff
Maya civilisation
Chichen Itza
David Stuart (Mayanist)
Notes
References
Becker, Marshall J. 1979 Priests, Peasants, and Ceremonial Centers: The Intellectual History of a Model. Texas University of Austin Press
Chase, Arlen and Chase, Diane. 2015 Sails in Aboriginal Mesoamerica: Thirty Years of Archaeology at Caracol, Belize: Retrospective and Prospective. Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology 12(1):13-14 |
External links
Cracking the Maya Code – PBS website
Hieroglyph Catalog
BBC Archive – The lost world of the Maya
1898 births
1975 deaths
English archaeologists
Mesoamerican epigraphers
Mesoamerican archaeologists
Mayanists
British Mesoamericanists
20th-century Mesoamericanists
Knights Bachelor
People educated at Winchester College
Alumni of Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge
Order of the Quetzal
Recipients of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20World%20monkey
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Old World monkey
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Old World monkey is the common English name for a family of primates known taxonomically as the Cercopithecidae . Twenty-four genera and 138 species are recognized, making it the largest primate family. Old World monkey genera include baboons (genus Papio), red colobus (genus Piliocolobus) and macaques (genus Macaca). Common names for other Old World monkeys include the talapoin, guenon, colobus, douc (douc langur, genus Pygathrix), vervet, gelada, mangabey (a group of genera), langur, mandrill, surili (Presbytis), patas, and proboscis monkey. Phylogenetically, they are more closely related to apes than to New World monkeys. They diverged from a common ancestor of New World monkeys around 45 to 55 million years ago.
The smallest Old World monkey is the talapoin, with a head and body 34–37 cm in length, and weighing between 0.7 and 1.3 kg. The largest is the male mandrill, around 70 cm in length, and weighing up to 50 kg. Old World monkeys have a variety of facial features; some have snouts, some are flat nosed, and many exhibit coloration. Most have tails, but they are not prehensile.
Old World monkeys are native to Africa and Asia today, inhabiting numerous environments: tropical rain forests, savannas, shrublands, and mountainous terrain. They inhabited much of Europe in the past; today, the only survivors in Europe are the Barbary macaques of Gibraltar. Whether they are native to Gibraltar or were brought by humans is unknown.
Some Old World monkeys are arboreal, such as the colobus monkeys; others are terrestrial, such as the baboons. Most are at least partially omnivorous, but all prefer plant matter, which forms the bulk of their diets. Most are highly opportunistic, primarily eating fruit, but also consuming almost any food items available, such as flowers, leaves, bulbs and rhizomes, insects, snails, small mammals, and garbage and handouts from humans.
Taxonomic classification and phylogeny
Two subfamilies are recognized, the Cercopithecinae, which are mainly African, but include the diverse genus of macaques, which are Asian and North African, and the Colobinae, which includes most of the Asian genera, but also the African colobus monkeys.
The Linnaean classification beginning with the superfamily is:
Superfamily Cercopithecoidea
Family Cercopithecidae: Old World monkeys
Subfamily Cercopithecinae
Tribe Cercopithecini
Genus Allenopithecus – Allen's swamp monkey
Genus Miopithecus – talapoins
Genus Erythrocebus – patas monkeys
Genus Chlorocebus
Genus Cercopithecus – guenons
Genus Allochrocebus – terrestrial guenons
Tribe Papionini
Genus Macaca – macaques
Genus Lophocebus – crested mangabeys
Genus Rungwecebus – kipunji
Genus Papio – baboons
Genus Theropithecus – gelada
Genus Cercocebus – white-eyelid mangabeys
Genus Mandrillus – mandrill and drill
Subfamily Colobinae
African group
Genus Colobus – black-and-white colobuses
Genus Piliocolobus – red colobuses
Genus Procolobus – olive colobus
Langur (leaf monkey) group
Genus Semnopithecus – gray langurs or Hanuman langurs
Genus Trachypithecus – lutungs
Genus Presbytis – surilis
Odd-nosed group
Genus Pygathrix – doucs
Genus Rhinopithecus – snub-nosed monkeys
Genus Nasalis – proboscis monkey
Genus Simias – pig-tailed langur
The distinction between apes and monkeys is complicated by the traditional paraphyly of monkeys: Apes emerged as a sister group of Old World monkeys in the catarrhines, which are a sister group of New World monkeys. Therefore, cladistically, apes, catarrhines and related contemporary extinct groups, such as Parapithecidae, are monkeys as well, for any consistent definition of "monkey".
"Old World monkey" may also legitimately be taken to be meant to include all the catarrhines, including apes and extinct species such as Aegyptopithecus, in which case the apes, Cercopithecoidea and Aegyptopithecus as well as (under an even more expanded definition) even the Platyrrhini emerged within the Old World monkeys. Historically, monkeys from the "Old World" (Afro-Arabia), somehow drifted to the "New World" some 40 million years ago, forming the "New World monkeys" (platyrrhines). Apes would emerge later within the Afro-Arabia group.
Characteristics
Old World monkeys are medium to large in size, and range from arboreal forms, such as the colobus monkeys, to fully terrestrial forms, such as the baboons. The smallest is the talapoin, with a head and body 34–37 cm in length, and weighing between 0.7 and 1.3 kilograms, while the largest is the male mandrill (the females of the species being significantly smaller), at around 70 cm in length, and weighing up to 50 kilograms.
Most Old World monkeys have tails (the family name means "tailed ape"), unlike the tailless apes. The tails of Old World monkeys are not prehensile, as are those of the New World monkeys (platyrrhines).
The distinction of catarrhines from platyrrhines depends on the structure of the rhinarium, and the distinction of Old World monkeys from apes depends on dentition (the number of teeth is the same in both, but they are shaped differently). In platyrrhines, the nostrils face sideways, while in catarrhines, they face downward. Other distinctions include both a tubular ectotympanic (ear bone), and eight, not twelve, premolars in catarrhines, giving them a dental formula of:
Several Old World monkeys have anatomical oddities. For example, the colobus monkeys have stubs for thumbs to assist with their arboreal movement, the proboscis monkey has an extraordinary nose, while the snub-nosed monkeys have almost no nose at all.
The penis of the male mandrill is red and the scrotum is lilac; the face is also brightly colored. The coloration is more pronounced in dominant males.
Habitat and distribution
The Old World monkeys are native to Africa and Asia today, inhabiting numerous environments: tropical rain forests, savannas, shrublands, and mountainous terrain. They inhabited much of Europe during the Neogene period; today the only survivors in Europe are the Barbary macaques of Gibraltar.
Behaviour and ecology
Diet
Most Old World monkeys are at least partially omnivorous, but all prefer plant matter, which forms the bulk of their diet. Leaf monkeys are the most vegetarian, subsisting primarily on leaves, and eating only a small number of insects, while the other species are highly opportunistic, primarily eating fruit, but also consuming almost any food items available, such as flowers, leaves, bulbs and rhizomes, insects, snails, and even small vertebrates. The Barbary macaque's diet consists mostly of leaves and roots, though it will also eat insects and uses cedar trees as a water source.
Reproduction
Gestation in the Old World monkeys lasts between five and seven months. Births are usually single, although, as with humans, twins occur occasionally. The young are born relatively well-developed, and are able to cling onto their mother's fur with their hands from birth. Compared with most other mammals, they take a long time to reach sexual maturity, with four to six years being typical of most species.
Social systems
In most species, daughters remain with their mothers for life, so that the basic social group among Old World monkeys is a matrilineal troop. Males leave the group on reaching adolescence, and find a new troop to join. In many species, only a single adult male lives with each group, driving off all rivals, but others are more tolerant, establishing hierarchical relationships between dominant and subordinate males. Group sizes are highly variable, even within species, depending on the availability of food and other resources.
See also
List of Old World monkey species
List of primates by population
References
External links
Old World monkeys
Extant Oligocene first appearances
Taxa named by John Edward Gray
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady%20Harriet%20Acland
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Lady Harriet Acland
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Lady Harriet Acland (née Fox-Strangways; 3 January 175021 July 1815) was a British noblewoman and diarist. She accompanied her husband to British North America and became celebrated for her personal courage. She is commemorated on one of the bronze reliefs on second floor of the Saratoga Monument in the State of New York.
Early life
She began life as The Honourable Christian Henrietta Caroline "Harriet" Fox-Strangways, daughter of Stephen Fox-Strangways (then Baron Ilchester), and his wife, the former Elizabeth Horner. When her father was raised to his earldom, Harriet became "Lady Harriet Fox-Strangways".
Marriage and issue
In 1770, at the age of twenty, she married John Dyke Acland, son of Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, 7th Baronet, and his wife, Elizabeth Dyke. Lady Harriet and her husband had two children:
Elizabeth "Kitty" Acland (13 December 1772 – 5 March 1813); married Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Carnarvon.
Sir John Dyke Acland, 8th Baronet (1778–1785); inherited the baronetcy at the age of 7 on the death of his paternal grandfather, the 7th Baronet. Sir John died a few weeks later, aged 7, and the baronetcy passed to his uncle Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, 9th Baronet.
American Revolution
Lady Harriet travelled with her husband to the Provence of Quebec and the Thirteen Colonies when he commanded the 20th Regiment of Foot. At the time of the Battles of Saratoga, during the American Revolutionary War, Lady Harriet heard that her husband had been wounded and travelled through the rebel lines to find him. Her husband, who had been shot through both legs, improved with her careful nursing. The next year they returned to England, where Colonel Acland died at Pixton Park, Dulverton near Exmoor on 31 October 1778.
Widowhood and death
During the long period of her widowhood, 1778-1815, Lady Harriet remained at Pixton Park, building the lane now known as Lady Harriet Acland's Drive to connect to where her daughter, Elizabeth, the Countess of Carnarvon, lived near Wiveliscombe.
Lady Harriet died, aged 65, at Tetton, near Taunton.
American War of Independence
A 1784 engraving by Robert Pollard depicting Lady Harriet Acland on the Hudson River is inscribed as follows:
This amiable Lady accompanied her Husband to Canada in the Year 1776, & during two Campaigns, under went such fatigue & distress as female fortitude was thought incapable of supporting; and once She narrowly escaped with life from her Tent which was set on fire in the Night. The Event here commemorated deserves to be recorded in History. In the unfortunate Action between G. Burgoyne & G. Gates Oct,, 7, 1777, Major Ackland was wounded & made Prisoner, when his Lady received the news She formed the heroic Resolution of delivering herself into the hands of the Enemy that she might attend him during the Captivity For this purpose, with a Letter from G. Burgoyne to G. Gates, accompanied by the Rev. Mr. Brudinell who carried a Flag of Truce, one female servant, & her husbands Valet, she rowed down Hudsons River in an open boat towards the America Camp, but Night coming on before she reached their outposts the Guards on duty refused to receive her & threatened to fire upon her if she moved till morning In this dreadful situation for 7 or 8 dark & cold hours, she was compelled to wait on the Water half dead with anxiety & terror. The morning put an end to her distress, she was receiv'd by Gen. Gates & restored to her husband with that politeness & humanity her sex, quality, & Virtue so justly merited. / See G. Burgoynes Narrative'.
References
Additional sources
Acland, Lady Harriet. The Acland Journal: Lady Harriet Acland and the American Revolution. Winchester, England: Hampshire County Council, 1993.
Young Folks Cyclopedia, 1882
1750 births
1815 deaths
18th-century British people
19th-century British people
18th-century British women
19th-century British women
English nurses
Female wartime nurses
People from Taunton
Daughters of British earls
Harriet
Place of birth missing
American Revolutionary War nurses
Harriet
British diarists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atticus
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Atticus
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Atticus may refer to:
Atticus, an adjective Latin name meaning "Athenian" or "of Attica"
People
Titus Pomponius Atticus (112/109 – 35/32 BC), ancient Roman littérateur, philosopher, and correspondent with Cicero
Herodes Atticus (101–177), Greek rhetorician
Atticus (philosopher) (fl. c. 175), Platonist philosopher and author of lost Plato commentary
Atticus, Christian martyr, one of Agapius, Atticus, Carterius, Styriacus, Tobias, Eudoxius, Nictopolion, and Companions (d. 310)
Atticus of Constantinople (406–425)
Atticus Greene Haygood (1839–1896), Methodist bishop and president of Emory University
Atticus Ross (born 1968), English musician
Atticus Browne (born 1991), West Indian cricketer
Atticus Mitchell (born 1993), Canadian actor and musician
Atticus Shaffer (born 1998), American actor
Fictional people
Atticus, a character in Cicero's De Legibus
Atticus, a character in The 39 Clues series of young adult novels
Atticus Aldridge, a character in the television series Downton Abbey
Atticus Fetch, a character in the television series Californication
Atticus Finch, a central character in the novel To Kill a Mockingbird
Atticus Kodiak, a character in novels by Greg Rucka
Sir Atticus Moon, a character in Big Time Movie
Atticus Murphy Jr., a character in the television series Todd and the Book of Pure Evil
Atticus O'Sullivan, the main character of the novel series The Iron Druid Chronicles
Atticus Rhodes, a character in the English dub of the Japanese anime Yu-Gi-Oh! GX
Atticus Lincoln, a character in the television series Grey's Anatomy
Atticus Turner, a character in the novel Lovecraft Country
Atticus Freeman, a character in the television series Lovecraft Country
Atticus Busby, a character in the Australian the television series Little Lunch
Other
Atticus (band), an alternative rock band from Knoxville, Tennessee
Atticus (novel), a 1996 novel by Ron Hansen
Atticus Circle, non-profit organization advocating for LGBT issues in Texas
Atticus Clothing, clothing line developed by musicians
Atticus the Storyteller's 100 Greek Myths, collection of Greek mythology by Lucy Coats
Atticus, part of the tympanic cavity of the middle ear
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-detached
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Semi-detached
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A semi-detached house (often abbreviated to semi) is a single family duplex dwelling house that shares one common wall with the next house. The name distinguishes this style of house from detached houses, with no shared walls, and terraced houses, with a shared wall on both sides. Often, semi-detached houses are built in pairs in which each house's layout is a mirror image of the other's.
Semi-detached houses are the most common property type in the United Kingdom (UK). They accounted for 32% of UK housing transactions and 32% of the English housing stock in 2008. Between 1945 and 1964, 41% of all properties built were semis. After 1980, the proportion of semis built fell to 15%.
History of the semi-detached house in the United Kingdom
Housing the rural working classes
Housing for the farm labourer in 1815 typically had one downstairs room with an extension for a scullery and pantry, and two bedrooms upstairs. The house would be of brick, stone if it occurred locally, or cob on a wooden frame. These houses were unsanitary, but the biggest problem was that there were simply too few of them. Population was increasing rapidly (see table), and after the Enclosure Acts labourers could not find spare land to build their own homes. Homebuilding was thus the responsibility of a landowner or speculative builder.
In the late 18th century, estate villages followed local architectural styles. This later changed as landowners adopted model designs from pattern books. By the early 19th century, landowners were typically using a "picturesque" style, and building double cottages as a way to reduce cost. In 1834 Smith wrote "this species of cottage can be built cheaper than two single ones, and, in general, these double cottages are found to be warmer and fully as comfortable as single ones".
Housing the urban working classes
At the same time as the huge increase in the population of the rural counties there was an even greater shift in population from the impoverished land to the large towns and to cities. Society was restructuring, with the labouring classes dividing into artisans and labourers. In the cities, labourers were housed in overcrowded tenement blocks, rookeries and lodging houses, and philanthropic societies aimed to improve conditions. The rural Labourers' Friend Society expanded in 1844 and was reconstituted as the Society for Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes. In their 1850 publication The Dwellings of the Labouring Classes, written by Henry Roberts, the society laid out plans for model 'semi-detached' cottages for workers in towns and the city. However, the first properties they built were tenements and lodging houses.
In 1866 the Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes built Alexander Cottages at Beckenham in Kent, on land provided by the Duke of Westminster. The development initially comprised 16 pairs of semis. By 1868, they had built 164 semis.
In Birmingham, Wolverhampton and the Potteries there was a tradition dating from the 1790s of artisans saving through mutual funds and Friendly Societies. In the 1840s, the permanent building society model was adopted. The Woolwich Equitable was founded in 1847, the Leeds Permanent in 1848 and Bradford Equitable in 1851. Artisans could invest and then borrow a sum for a mortgage on their own property.
Model villages
In the wool towns of Yorkshire three families built villages for their workers. In each, there was a hierarchy of houses: long terraces for the workers, larger houses in shorter terraces for the overlookers, semi-detached houses for the junior managers, and detached houses for the elite. The first such village was built by Colonel Edward Ackroyd, at Copley, West Yorkshire, between 1849 and 1853, the second by Sir Titus Salt at Saltaire (1851–1861), and the third was the West Hill Park Estate in Halifax built by John Crossley. Model villages in Lancashire followed, with developments like Houldsworth Village. Semi-detached housing in colliery villages was rare; status here was determined by the length of the terrace.
The development of Port Sunlight and Bournville was important. The Port Sunlight model village was begun in 1887. William Lever used architects William Owen and his son Segar Owen and stated in 1888 that:
It is my and my brother's hope, some day, to build houses in which our work-people will be able to live and be comfortable – semi-detached houses with gardens back and front, in which they will be able to know more about the science of life than they can in a back-to-back slum.
At Bournville in 1879 the Cadbury development started with a detached house for the manager and six pairs of semis with large gardens for key workers. By 1895 the village was made up of semis and short terraces, showing that a low density layout could be a practical possibility even for the working classes. The examples of Bournville and Port Sunlight were seized on by Ebenezer Howard, and they became key models for the Garden City movement.
Housing the middle classes
The middle class became an important and expanding group in the 19th century. With industrialisation came material gain to the capitalist entrepreneur. New professions came into existence to serve their needs: insurers, engineers, designers. The growth in the population required more architects, lawyers, teachers, doctors, dentists and shopkeepers. Hierarchical tiers emerged within the middle class, each watching each other's status. According to A New system of Practical Domestic Economy (1820–1840), being middle class required an income of £150 p.a. or more. In 1851, 3 million out of a total population of 18 million in the UK would have been considered to be middle class.
Semi-detached houses for the middle class began to be planned systematically in late 18th-century Georgian architecture, as a suburban compromise between the terraced houses close to the city centre, and the detached "villas" further out, where land was cheaper. There are occasional examples of such houses in town centres going back to medieval times. Most early examples are in areas such as Blackheath, Chalk Farm and St John's Wood, now the outer fringes of Central London. Sir John Summerson considered the origin of the semi-detached house to be the Eyre Estate of St John's Wood. He commented that in a plan for the estate dated 1794 "the whole development consists of pairs of semi-detached houses. So far as I know, this is the first recorded scheme of the kind." The estate was not built at that time due to the French Revolutionary Wars, but when it was finally built it retained the semi-detached form, "a revolution of striking significance and far-reaching effect".
In these early years a common style was a row of houses in which several pairs of semi-detached houses are linked by a wall along the frontage. An example is The Paragon in Blackheath, where a blank colonnade runs between the houses. Most early examples were relatively large houses with access at the rear.
During the 19th century, a father and son architectural partnership, John Shaw Sr. and John Shaw Jr., drew up designs for semi-detached housing in London. Examples of their work can be seen in Chalk Farm, North London. John Nash, better known for his Regency terraces, built some semi-detached villas either side of the Regent's Canal. These were styled to appear as substantial single detached villas with the entrances to the side. Similarly, the landscape gardener John Claudius Loudon built a pair of semi-detached villas fashioned to appear as a single house in Porchester Terrace in 1825. In his 1838 book The Suburban Gardener and Villa Companion he gives advice on how to disguise the join between the houses by using false windows.
Late 19th century and 20th century
The Public Health Act 1875 described the structure and required minimum size of terraced houses and the street pattern that towns had to adopt. This made it difficult to place a semi in a large garden. The law stated that the building lines should be 11m apart, and that there should be rear access to allow the removal of nightsoil. In 1875, it was thought that having a privy inside the house was unhealthy. Cold water came from a stand pipe in the yard, and lighting was by candle or by gas mantles. Heating and cooking was done by coal, and hot water was boiled in kettles on the living room range. Kitchens were rare – the wet activities were done outside or in the scullery. Later, water was piped to the house, and some living room fires had a back boiler for heating.
During the First World War the Tudor Walters Report was published, setting standards for the accommodations needed for returning soldiers, dubbed "homes fit for heroes". The Housing, Town Planning, &c. Act 1919 (Addison Act) incorporated those recommendations including one that allowed for housing based on the Radburn design. In this design, small clusters of up to 15 houses would circle small cul-de-sacs of a district feeder road. This tipped the balance away from short terraces towards pairs of semi-detached houses. The housing density was initially generous, but was reduced in 1923 after a change of government from the Liberal Party to the Conservative Party.
After the Second World War, there was a chronic shortage of houses. In the short term this was relieved by the construction of prefabricated houses with a ten-year life. The successor was the pre-cast reinforced concrete semi-detached house. Although the frame was concrete the exterior panels were often traditional brick, so the final building was visually indistinguishable from a traditionally built house.
The recommendations of the Parker Morris Committee became mandatory for all public housing from 1967 till 1980. Initially the private sector adopted them too, but gradually lowered their standards.
Outside the United Kingdom and Ireland
Although semi-detached housing is built throughout the world, it is generally seen as particularly symbolic of the suburbanisation of the United Kingdom and Ireland, or post-war homes in Canada. In Toronto, the semi-detached house was a major building type during both the pre and post-war periods. In New England, some other parts of the United States, and occasionally in Canada, this style is colloquially called a "duplex". Elsewhere, however, "duplex" refers to a building comprising two flats/apartments, one above the other; this is also referred to as a "two-flat'. Semi-detached houses are typically referred to as 'twins' in the Mid-Atlantic region (particularly in Pennsylvania).
Australia
In Australia, a semi-detached house is also known as a "duplex". Townhouses may be apparently similar to semi-detached houses, but a semi-detached house sits on a single property, owned in its entirety by the owner of the semi-detached house, whereas townhouses sit on a shared property. The type of real property title held is therefore different: a semi-detached home is generally held as a Torrens titled property, while a townhouse is a Strata titled unit. Semi-detached houses come only in pairs, whereas there may be more than two townhouses attached together. In Sydney, semi-detached houses were briefly popular at the beginning of the 20th century and many examples may be found in inner suburbs such as Drummoyne. However, this style quickly gave way to the 'modern' style of detached housing which allowed better motor vehicle access, amongst other benefits.
Canada
The semi-detached house was seen as a good fit for downtown Toronto's narrow lots early in the city's history. In the late 19th century semis were built in areas such as The Annex and Cabbagetown in assorted styles: Gothic Revival, Queen Anne, Second Empire, bay-and-gable.
Semi-detached homes continued to be built in the post-war period, often alongside detached types such as the bungalow. They remain popular with developers as they are cheaper to build than detached houses. According to the 2006 census, Toronto had more than 139,000 semis, more than any other Canadian city by a wide margin. Red-brick semis are a common sight throughout downtown and older suburbs.
Cultural references
"Semi-detached suburban Mr. James", written and performed by Manfred Mann, is a satirical song about a lost love marrying a boring man from semi-detached suburbia. It was released in 1966 and reached No. 2 in the UK charts.
Semi-Detached Mock Tudor is a live album by Richard Thompson.
"My Pink Half of The Drainpipe", written and performed by the Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band, satirises neighbourly relations and ownership of property, referring to the practice of each family painting only one half of the drainpipe that runs down the centre of the dividing line between properties.
“Wisemen” is a song written and performed by British artist James Blunt, and refers to three wise men having a “semi” by the sea.
See also
Detached house
Duplex (building)
References
Citations
Sources cited
Sir John Summerson, Georgian London, (1945), 1988 revised edition, Barrie & Jenkins, . (Also see revised edition, edited by Howard Colvin, 2003)
External links
The Semi-Detached House by Hon. Emily Eden (1797-1869), published London: R. Bentley, 1859.
House types
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisinnius
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Sisinnius
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Sisinnius (, Sisinnios, also Sissinnios) may refer to:
Pope Sisinnius, Pope for about three weeks in 708
Sisinnius I of Constantinople, Archbishop of Constantinople from 426 to 427
Sisinnius II of Constantinople, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 996 to 998
Saint Sisinnius, one of the martyred missionaries sent by Saint Vigilius of Trent
Saint Sisinnius of Parthia, depicted in "holy rider" charms of the Byzantine Period; see Gello
Susenyos I, Emperor of Ethiopia from 1608 to 1632
Susenyos II, Emperor of Ethiopia for about four months in 1770
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Francis%20Adams%20Sr.
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Charles Francis Adams Sr.
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Charles Francis Adams Sr. (August 18, 1807 – November 21, 1886) was an American historical editor, writer, politician, and diplomat. He was a son of President John Quincy Adams, and grandson of President John Adams, about whom he wrote a major biography. He had two daughters and five sons, including John Quincy Adams II, Charles Francis Adams Jr., Henry Adams, and Brooks Adams.
Adams served two terms in the Massachusetts State Senate before running unsuccessfully as vice-presidential candidate for the Free Soil Party in the election of 1848 on a ticket with former president Martin Van Buren. During the Civil War, Adams served as the United States Minister to the United Kingdom under Abraham Lincoln, where he played a key role in keeping the British government neutral and not diplomatically recognizing the Confederacy.
Adams became an overseer of Harvard University and built Adams National Historical Park, a library in Quincy, Massachusetts honoring his father.
Early life
Adams was born in Boston on August 18, 1807, and he was one of three sons and a daughter born to John Quincy Adams (1767–1848) and Louisa Catherine Johnson (1775–1852). His older brothers were George Washington Adams (1801–1829) and John Adams II (1803–1834). His sister, Louisa, was born in 1811 but died in 1812 while the family was in Russia.
He attended Boston Latin School and Harvard College, where he graduated in 1825. He then studied law with Daniel Webster, attained admission to the bar, and practiced in Boston. He wrote numerous reviews of works about American and British history for the North American Review.
During the presidency of John Quincy Adams (1825–1829), Charles and his brothers John and George were all rivals for the same woman, their cousin Mary Catherine Hellen, who lived with the Adams family after the death of her parents. In 1828, John married Mary in a White House ceremony, and both Charles and George declined to attend.
Career
In 1840, Adams was elected to three one-year terms in the Massachusetts House of Representatives and he served in the Massachusetts Senate from 1843 to 1845. In 1846, he purchased and became editor of the Boston Whig newspaper. In 1848, he was the unsuccessful nominee of the Free Soil Party for Vice President of the United States, running on a ticket with former president Martin Van Buren as the presidential nominee.
From the 1840s, Adams became one of the finest historical editors of his era. He developed his expertise in part because of the example of his father, who in 1829 had turned from politics (after his defeated bid for a second presidential term in 1828) to history and biography. John Quincy Adams began a biography of his father, John Adams, but wrote only a few chapters before resuming his political career in 1830 with his election to the U.S. House of Representatives.
The younger Adams, fresh from his edition of the letters of his grandmother Abigail Adams, Letters of Mrs. Adams, the Wife of John Adams (1840), took up the project that his father had left uncompleted and between 1850 and 1856, turned out not just the two volumes of the biography but eight further volumes presenting editions of John Adams's Diary and Autobiography, his major political writings, and a selection of letters and speeches. The edition, titled The Works of John Adams, Esq., Second President of the United States, was the only edition of John Adams's writings until the family donated the cache of Adams papers to the Massachusetts Historical Society in 1854 and authorized the creation of the Adams Papers project; the modern project had published accurate scholarly editions of John Adams's diary and autobiography, several volumes of Adams family correspondence, two volumes on the portraits of John and Abigail Adams and John Quincy and Louisa Catherine Adams, and the early years of the diary of Charles Francis Adams, who published a revised edition of the biography in 1871. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1857.
Congressman and diplomat
As a Republican, Adams was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1858, where he chaired the Committee on Manufactures. He was re-elected in 1860, but resigned to become U.S. minister (ambassador) to the Court of St James's (Britain), a post previously held by his father and grandfather, from 1861 to 1868. Powerful Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner had wanted the position and so became alienated from Adams. Britain had already recognized Confederate belligerency, but Adams was instrumental in maintaining British neutrality and preventing British diplomatic recognition of the Confederacy during the American Civil War.
Part of his duties included correspondence with British civilians including Karl Marx and the International Workingmen's Association. Adams and his son, Henry Adams, who acted as his private secretary, also were kept busy monitoring Confederate diplomatic intrigues and the construction of rebel commerce raiders by British shipyards (like hull N°290, launched as Enrica from Liverpool but was soon transformed near the Azores Islands into sloop-of-war CSS Alabama).
His main success as a diplomat was keeping Britain neutral. He helped resolve the Trent Affair in 1861, in which an American naval officer violated British rights, with the help of Lincoln. With American blockade of the Confederacy growing increasingly successful, very little cotton now reached Europe except through Union channels. A strong element in Britain, including Chancellor of the Exchequer William Gladstone, wanted to intervene to help the Confederacy. Adams warned that meant war with the United States, as well as the cutting off American food exports, which comprised about a fourth of the British food supply. The American Navy, increasingly strong, would try to sink British shipping.
The British government pulled back from talk of war when the Confederate invasion of the North was defeated at Antietam, and Lincoln announced that he would issue the Emancipation Proclamation. Adams and his staff collected details on the shipbuilding issue, showing how warships built for the Confederacy caused widespread damage to the American merchant marine. The evidence became the basis of the postwar Alabama Claims. The claims went to arbitration, with Adams in charge of the American side. The British in 1872 agreed to pay $15 million in damages.
Later life
Back in Boston, Adams declined the presidency of Harvard University, but became one of its overseers in 1869. In 1870 he built the first presidential library in the United States to honor his father John Quincy Adams. The Stone Library includes over 14,000 books written in twelve languages. The library is located on the property of the "Old House" (also known as "Peacefield") at Adams National Historical Park in Quincy, Massachusetts.
In 1876 Adams ran unsuccessfully for Governor of Massachusetts.
During the 1876 electoral college controversy, Adams sided with Democrat Samuel J. Tilden over Republican Rutherford B. Hayes for the White House.
Personal life
On September 3, 1829, he married Abigail Brown Brooks (1808–1889), whose father was shipping magnate Peter Chardon Brooks (1767–1849). She had two sisters, Charlotte, who was married to Edward Everett, a Massachusetts politician, and Ann, who was married to Nathaniel Frothingham, a Unitarian minister. Together, they were the parents of:
Louisa Catherine Adams (1831–1870), who married Charles Kuhn
John Quincy Adams II (1833–1894)
Charles Francis Adams Jr. (1835–1915)
Henry Brooks Adams (1838–1918)
Arthur George Adams (1841–1846), who died young
Mary Gardiner Adams (1845–1928), who married Dr. Henry Parker Quincy
Peter Chardon Brooks Adams (1848–1927)
Adams died in Boston on November 21, 1886, and was interred in Mount Wollaston Cemetery, Quincy. He was the last surviving child of John Quincy Adams.
His wife Abigail's "health and spirits" worsened after her husband's death, and she died at Peacefield on June 6, 1889.
References
Notes
Sources
Adams, Jr., Charles Francis, Charles Francis Adams, Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1900.
Butterfield, L. H. et al., eds., The Adams Papers (1961– ). Multivolume letterpress edition of all letters to and from major members of the Adams family, plus their diaries; still incomplete.
Donald, Aida Dipace and Donald, David Herbert, eds., Diary of Charles Francis Adams (2 vols.). Harvard University Press, 1964.
Duberman, Martin. Charles Francis Adams, 1807–1886. Stanford University Press, 1968.
Egerton, Douglas R. Heirs of an Honored Name: The Decline of the Adams Family and the Rise of Modern America. Basic Books, 2019.
External links
Appleton's Biography edited by Stanley L. Klos
Charles Francis Adams, Sr. Civil War era diaries Digital Edition
Nagel, Paul. Descent from Glory: Four Generations of the John Adams Family. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999.
Texas and the Massachusetts Resolutions, by Charles Francis Adams, published 1844, hosted by the Portal to Texas History
Selected diplomatic Letters of the Lincoln administration at Ford's Theatre site, including several to or from Adams
Mount Wollaston Cemetery Tour (includes grave image)
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1807 births
1886 deaths
19th-century American diplomats
19th-century American politicians
Adams, Charles Francis I
Ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom
Children of presidents of the United States
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
American people of English descent
Harvard College alumni
Lawyers from Boston
Massachusetts Free Soilers
Massachusetts lawyers
Massachusetts Republicans
Massachusetts state senators
Massachusetts Whigs
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Members of the Massachusetts House of Representatives
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts
People of Massachusetts in the American Civil War
Politicians from Boston
Politicians from Quincy, Massachusetts
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
1848 United States vice-presidential candidates
1872 United States vice-presidential candidates
People from Beacon Hill, Boston
Thomas Johnson family
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theo%20de%20Raadt
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Theo de Raadt
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Theo de Raadt (; ; born May 19, 1968) is a South African-born software engineer who lives in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. He is the founder and leader of the OpenBSD and OpenSSH projects and was also a founding member of NetBSD. In 2004, De Raadt won the Free Software Award for his work on OpenBSD and OpenSSH.
Early life
Theo de Raadt is the eldest of four children to a Dutch father and a South African mother, with two sisters and a brother. Concern over the mandatory two-year armed forces conscription in South Africa led the family to emigrate to Calgary, Alberta, Canada in November 1977. In 1983, the largest recession in Canada since the Great Depression sent the family to the Yukon. Prior to the move, De Raadt got his first computer, a Commodore VIC-20, which was soon followed by an Amiga. It is with these computers that he first began to develop software. In 1992, he obtained a BSc in Computer Science from the University of Calgary.
NetBSD
In 1993, Theo de Raadt founded NetBSD with Chris Demetriou, Adam Glass, and Charles Hannum, who felt frustrated at the poor quality of 386BSD and believed an open development model would be better. 386BSD was derived from the original University of California Berkeley's 4.3BSD release, while the new NetBSD project would merge relevant code from the Networking/2 and 386BSD releases.
The new project focused on clean, portable, correct code, with the goal of producing a unified, multi-platform, production-quality BSD operating system.
The first NetBSD source code repository was established on March 21, 1993 and the initial release, NetBSD 0.8, was made in April 1993. This was derived from 386BSD 0.1 plus the version 0.2.2 unofficial patchkit, with several programs from the Net/2 release missing from 386BSD re-integrated, and various other improvements. In August 1993, NetBSD 0.9 was released, which contained many enhancements and bug fixes. This was still a PC-platform-only release, although by this time work was underway to add support for other architectures.
NetBSD 1.0 was released in October, 1994. This was the first multi-platform release, supporting the IBM PC compatible, HP 9000 Series 300, Amiga, 68k Macintosh, Sun-4c series and PC532. Also in this release, the legally encumbered Net/2-derived source code was replaced with equivalent code from 4.4BSD-lite, in accordance with the USL v BSDi lawsuit settlement. De Raadt played a vital role in the creation of the SPARC port, implementing much of the initial code together with Chuck Cranor.
OpenBSD
In December 1994, Theo de Raadt was forced to resign from the NetBSD core team, and his access to the source repository was revoked. Fellow team members claimed it was due to rude and abusive behaviour on the mailing lists.
In his book Free for All, Peter Wayner claims that De Raadt "began to rub some people the wrong way" before the split from NetBSD, while Linus Torvalds has described him as "difficult". Many have different feelings: the same interviewer describes De Raadt's "transformation" on founding OpenBSD and his "desire to take care of his team," some find his straightforwardness refreshing, and De Raadt remains widely respected as a hacker and security expert.
In October 1995, De Raadt founded OpenBSD, a new project forked from NetBSD 1.0. The initial release, OpenBSD 1.2, was made in July 1996, followed in October of the same year by OpenBSD 2.0. Since then, the project has followed a schedule of a release every six months, each of which is maintained and supported for one year.
Outspokenness
De Raadt has been a vocal advocate of free software since the inception of OpenBSD, but he has on occasion had rather public disputes with various groups, from Linux advocates to governments. This outspoken attitude, while sometimes the cause of conflict, has also led him to acclaim; De Raadt has given presentations at open source, free software and security conferences around the world—including FOSDEM in Brussels, Belgium, Usenix in San Antonio, Texas, U.S., AUUG Conference in Melbourne, Australia and FISL in Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
DARPA funding cancellation
After De Raadt stated his disapproval of the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in an April, 2003 interview with Toronto's Globe and Mail, a multi-million-dollar US Department of Defense grant to the University of Pennsylvania's POSSE project was cancelled, effectively ending the project. Funding from the grant had been used in the development of OpenSSH and OpenBSD, as well as many other projects and was to be used to pay for the hackathon planned for May 8, 2003. Despite money from the grant already having been used to secure accommodations for sixty developers for a week, the money was reclaimed by the government at a loss and the hotel was told not to allow the developers to pay the reclaimed money to resecure the rooms. This resulted in criticism among some that the US military held an anti-free speech attitude. The grant termination was, however, not as bad a blow as some portrayed it. The project's supporters rallied to help and the hackathon went on almost as planned. The funding was cut mere months before the end of the grant, further fueling the speculations regarding the situation surrounding the grant's termination.
Free driver advocacy
De Raadt is also well known for his advocacy of free software drivers. He has long been critical of developers of Linux and other free platforms for their tolerance of non-free drivers and acceptance of non-disclosure agreements.
In particular, De Raadt has worked to convince wireless hardware vendors to allow the firmware images of their products to be freely redistributed. These efforts have been largely successful, particularly in negotiations with Taiwanese companies, leading to many new wireless drivers. De Raadt has commented that "most Taiwanese vendors give us documentation almost immediately," allowing open source drivers to reliably support devices, as opposed to the lack of willingness from US companies like Intel and Broadcom to release firmware images free from licensing restrictions.
Clash with Linux developers
In April 2007, De Raadt was involved in a controversy involving the use of GPL code from the Linux bcm43xx driver in the BSD bcw driver. Linux developers accused the BSD community of infringing GPL code, but De Raadt denied infringement, arguing that the BSD driver was not "released". He also maintained that the conflict was not about GPL, but the way Linux developer Michael Buesch handled the situation. To Buesch's email, he responded:
Another clash occurred in August 2007, when a group of Linux developers attempted to modify the license of dual-licensed ath5k driver. De Raadt summarised the issue as follows:
References
External links
2000 interview at Slashdot
2001 interview at KernelTrap
2006 interview at KernelTrap
Canadian software engineers
Computer security specialists
Free software programmers
NetBSD people
OpenBSD people
People from Calgary
South African emigrants to Canada
Canadian people of Afrikaner descent
Canadian people of Dutch descent
1968 births
Living people
Kernel programmers
University of Calgary alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik%20Bouman
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Hendrik Bouman
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Hendrik "Henk" Bouman (born 29 September 1951, in Dordrecht) is a Dutch harpsichordist, fortepianist, conductor and composer of music written in the baroque and classical idioms of the 17th and 18th century.
Biography
In the late '70s, Hendrik Bouman studied at the Amsterdam Conservatory with several of the pioneers of the baroque revival, notably Ton Koopman and Lucie van Dael, and followed masterclasses, with Gustav Leonhardt, Nikolaus Harnoncourt and Max van Egmond. He was principal harpsichordist of the baroque ensemble Musica Antiqua Köln from 1976 to 1983, with whom he toured worldwide under the auspices of the Goethe Institute and recorded extensively for DGG Archiv and numerous European radio stations.
Formerly professor of harpsichord and fortepiano at Concordia University and the Université Laval in Quebec, Hendrik Bouman also taught historically informed performance practice and chamber ensemble. He has given masterclasses in Europe, Canada, United States of America, South America, Mexico and India.
Since 2012 Hendrik Bouman guides young ‘baroque and classical composers’ aspiring to attain mastery in their art. In 2016 he was invited by Académie de Musique Rainier III in Monaco to give a series of masterclasses on improvisation in baroque style.
Bouman first introduced baroque improvisation into his recital in 1993 at the Festival Domaine Forget in Quebec at the request of Radio Canada and his baroque compositions in a broadcast by CBCTV 'Compass' in Maritimes Canada in 1994. The CBC/Radio Canada – Toronto, Moncton, Halifax and CBCTV Halifax and ATV Halifax Canada have broadcast numerous 'live' premiere performances of his works as well as 14 feature portraits.
He has made 16 transcriptions of works by François Couperin, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Georg Philipp Telemann, and J. S. Bach, including two Brandenburg Concerti in a version for two harpsichords and an orchestration of Bach's Italian Concerto as well as several adaptations in baroque style of Christmas Carols commissioned and recorded by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC Radio Charlottetown) in 1994.
Schott has published some of his basso continuo realisations.
He made his conducting debut in the première of the mass by Alain Pierard at the Basilique Notre-Dame de Montréal in 1985. The following year he founded the period orchestra Les Nations de Montréal, which he directed in 1987 in the 20th-century premiere of the opera Amadis de Gaule for the tricentenary of Lully with soloists and choir of the Atélier de l'Opéra de l'Université Laval.[2] The concert was broadcast 'live' by Radio Canada and subsequently by Radio France and Swiss Radio. He directed his orchestra in programmes of 18th Century music for a public of 5000 in the prestigious Concerts Populaire d'Été de la Ville de Montréal.[3] He made his American conducting debut with the Portland Baroque Orchestra and Choir in performances of Handel's Messiah in 1990. [4]
He received several grants from Canada, Italy and France for his innovative work as composer-performer of period music and as founding-director of the Festivals: Rendez-vous con Hendrik Bouman (Italy) 1992, Halifax 1749 Baroque (Canada) 1999, Baroque by the Sea (Maritimes Canada) 1999 and 2005, the Baroque SaMuse Concert Series (Montréal, Canada) 2006–2007 [5], as well as a sponsorship from Berkeley Homes, United Kingdom for his Baroque by the Sea Concert Series (Sussex, United Kingdom) 2009 [6]; concert series predominantly dedicated to the performance of his baroque and classical compositions, period improvisations, as well as historical repertoire and his transcriptions thereof.
During his career Hendrik Bouman has appeared in duo with renowned artists: Nancy Argenta, Hajo Bäss, Brian Berryman, Max van Egmond, Reinhard Goebel, Wilbert Hazelzet, Grégoire Jeay, Matthew Jennjohn, Mireille Lagacé, Marie Leonhardt, Jaap ter Linden, Matthias Maute, Susie Napper, Heiko ter Schegget, Simon Standage, Carolyn Watkinson and Ifan Williams. He has also collaborated with renowned conductors and soloists Rossana Bertini, Iván Fischer, Philippe Herreweghe, Christopher Jackson, Emma Kirkby, Ton and Tini Koopman, Jeanne Lamon, Gino Mangiocavalli, Nigel Rogers and Michael Schopper. In the 2016-2017 Chamber music series of the Opera de Nice he plays in concert duos with the concert master violinist Reine-Brigette Sulem.[7]
Hendrik Bouman has received many awards for his 25 recordings of which there are more than 45 re-editions, for DGG/Archiv, EMI, REM/Radio Canada, Baroque-Nouveau, notably: the Edison Prize (Netherlands), 3 Deutscher Schallplattenpreis, Artist of the Year by the Deutsche Phono-Akademie and the career Prize for Young Artists from the Federal State of North-Rhine Westphalia (Germany), Le Grand Prix National du Disque, 6 Diapason d’Or, Répertoire Recommandé, 9-Repertoire; Diapason 5 (France), and the Early Music Award, Gramophone Award (England) [8]. He was recipient of the Canadian composers' SOCAN Foundation's CD Award, for the distribution to radio-broadcasters worldwide of his CDs Little Notebook for Anna I & II, on which he plays his harpsichord and piano compositions. In 2011 ARYA released Hendrik Bouman's "5 Baroque Concertos for Anna" performed by The Baroque Muse of which Bouman is the founding director and Simon Standage the leader (concert master)[9].
Hendrik Bouman has lived in his native Netherlands, and in Germany, Italy, France, Quebec, Maritimes Canada and India. Since 2012 he lives with his wife and children on the Côte d'Azur in France. He speaks French, English, Italian, German and Dutch. He is an avid sailor and cartoonist.
Activity as a composer
In 1993, with over 18 years as performer, researcher and professor in early music, Hendrik Bouman embarked on the composition of new music in baroque and classical idioms according to the standards of the 17th and 18th century. This was for him a natural development of the ongoing revival of baroque music. In creating his new period style compositions, he employs various European national idioms and their many typical forms such as the sonata, concerto, ouverture and fugue. He first played his contemporary 'baroque' music in South Africa in January 1994 and his harpsichord solos were first recorded by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in December that year.
He has composed over 120 works in 17th and 18th century style for harpsichord; piano; clavichord; organ; violin solo; viola solo; flute solo; recorder solo cello solo; as well as quartets; trios; duets; sonatas; ouvertures; concerto grossos; harpsichord concertos; violin concerto; recorder concerto; flute concerto; oboe concerto; cello concerto; music for baroque theatre and choir and a classical symphony.
Concerts dedicated to Hendrik Bouman's compositions have been broadcast by CBC and Radio Canada in Toronto, Halifax, Moncton, Charlottetown and by ATV and CBCTV Maritimes, DT-Danish National Radio and Radio France/France Musiques. His Menuet du Matin dedicated to Prince Willem Alexander of the Netherlands was chosen as a theme of Radio Canada's Les Bonheurs de Sophie in 1998, and CBC TV News broadcast his composition HRH Princess Diana's Ground, as tribute on September 2, 1997.[10] France Musique broadcast on Easter day 2003 his improvisations in baroque style recorded in a live performance on the Ruckers-Taskin harpsichord in the Musée de la Cité de la Musique in Paris. On Christmas Day 2015 an hour's feature programme on Fine Music Classical music radio in Sydney Australia is dedicated to Hendrik Bouman's compositions.[11]
He has premiered over 2/3 of his compositions in France, the Netherlands, Belgium, England, Canada, India and South Africa and his works have also been performed in Italy, Germany Sweden and the USA. He has premiered his orchestral and chamber music with his ensembles Concerto Felice, Baroque SaMuse and The Baroque Muse which he founded in 2009. He has performed his works also in solo recitals, in trio and in duo with flutists Brian Berryman and Grégoire Jeay; recorder players Heiko ter Schegget, Matthias Maute, Sophie Larivière, and Ambikaprasad Mallik; oboist Matthew Jennejohn; violinists Hajo Bäss, and Simon Standage; viol player Susie Napper; cellists Tormod Dalen and Ifan Williams. Hajo Bäss has premiered the Fantaisie pour violon seul, which was composed for him in 1999. Bouman premiered with Simon Standage the "Classical Sonate for Violin and Piano in Bflat major" which he composed for him in 2008. Bouman composed the music (which he directed from the harpsichord) for a production of Molière's Le Malade Imaginaire in Auroville, India in 2006. In March 2009 he inaugurated his concert series Baroque by the Sea, Eastbourne in the United Kingdom. In Brighton, Sussex, in the United Kingdom in November 2009 he premiered with his ensemble The Baroque Muse his compositions "Harpsichord Concerto in D major" – soloist Hendrik Bouman, "Flute Concerto in E minor" – soloist and dedicatee Grégoire Jeay, "Violin Concerto in D major" – soloist and dedicatee Simon Standage, "Cello Concerto in A minor" – soloist Tormod Dalen, and "Recorder Concerto in C major" – soloist Heiko ter Schegget.
In August 2011 Hendrik Bouman directed members of the Orchestra of the Eighteenth Century in the premiere of his Concerto Grosso in G major - "La Festa di Lucia" which was commissioned to honour the Dutch violinist, Lucy van Dael, co-founder and formerly, leader of the Orchestra of the Eighteenth Century and professor at the Amsterdam Conservatory and the Royal Conservatory of The Hague.
His two CDs of solo compositions for harpsichord and piano dedicated to his wife Anna, Little Notebook for Anna I & II, were released in 1998 and distributed to radio-broadcasters worldwide by the SOCAN foundation (Canadian composers). In 2011 the CD, "5 Baroque Concertos for Anna", of Bouman's compositions, recorded by The Baroque Muse under Bouman's direction at Viscount Gage's ancestral manoir Firle Place in Sussex United Kingdom, was released on his label Arya. Subsequently, Arya released the CDs: "2nd Notebook for Anna" of Bouman's 18th Century classical compositions which he performs on a Fazioli piano of the Ville de Montréal; the "3rd Notebook for Anna" of Bouman's 18th Century classical compositions he performs on a fortepiano, the "4th Notebook for Anna" of his harpsichord compositions he performs on his double manual harpsichord he designed and built in 2006, and the "5th Notebook for Anna" of his harpsichord compositions recorded on his double harpsichord following his recital in Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat in 2015. [12] The CD "7 Baroque Solos for Anna" featuring Bouman's solos compositions for a variety of instruments recorded by Bouman and his colleagues / soloists of his ensemble Barque SaMuse (The Baroque Muse) in Firle Place and Berwick Church in Sussex, England will be released in 2017.
Hendrik Bouman is the first renowned composer/performer of baroque music in two centuries to design and build the harpsichords on which he plays in concerts and recordings.
He is a member of the British Harpsichord Society, Société des auteurs, compositeurs et éditeurs de musique SACEM - composer rights (France), ADAMI - solo performance rights (France), SPEDIDAM - ensemble performance rights (France) and SDRM - CD mechanical recording rights (France) as well as being a member of the period composers' guild, Vox Saeculorum.
References
2. La Presse, Montréal: Lully - Trois Cent ans - l’Orchestre Les Nations de Montréal, 1987
3. Le Devoir, Montréal: "Quand ‘Un Temple Populaire’ Accueille La Musique Ancienne", 1988
4. The Oregonian, USA: "Superb Messiah"- Portland Baroque Orchestre, USA 1990
5. The Gazette (Montreal), Kaptainis, Arthur: "Masterful Notes in Masters' Styles". February 10, 2007.
6. "CQ, Cultural Quarterly", (East Sussex, UK), Watson Claire: "Music from the Masters". Spring 2009.
7. http://www.opera-nice.org/fr/evenement/157/vivaldi-scarlatti-hubeau-bach-bouman-mozart-barbella
8. Gramophone, United Kingdom: Twenty Years After, October 2010
9. Harpsichord & Fortepiano magazine - Review of Hendrik Bouman CD 5 Baroque Concerto for Anna Spring 2012
10. CBCTV News, Canada - Video: HRH Princess Diana - "IN HER HONOUR", September 2, 1997
11. Fine Music, Sydney Australia - http://www.finemusicfm.com, December 25, 2015
12. Le Petit Journal, Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat, France, April 2015
Hendrik Bouman's official website updated 2016 - biography and media reviews and features
Colburn, Grant. "A New Baroque Revival: Breaking through the Final Taboo". Early Music America, Vol. 13, No. 2, Summer 2007.
Haynes, Bruce. The End of Early Music: A Period Performer's History of Music. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
External links
/ Hendrik Bouman Website
/ Sacem, composer rights society, France
/ Spedidam, artist-performer, music and dance private copy rights society, France
/ Adami, performing rights society, France
/ SDRM CD mechanical recording rights France
/ British Harpsichord Society
Vox Saeculorum
Dutch composers
Historicist composers
Dutch harpsichordists
Dutch fortepianists
Baroque musicians
Conservatorium van Amsterdam alumni
People from Dordrecht
1951 births
Living people
21st-century classical pianists
Vox Saeculorum
Université Laval faculty
Concordia University faculty
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agra
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Agra
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Agra (, ) is a city on the banks of the Yamuna river in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, about south of the national capital New Delhi and 335 km west of the state capital Lucknow. With a population of roughly 1.6 million, Agra is the fourth-most populous city in Uttar Pradesh and twenty-third most populous city in India.
Agra's notable historical period began during Sikandar Lodi's reign, but the golden age of the city began with the Mughals. Agra was the foremost city of the Indian subcontinent and the capital of the Mughal Empire under Mughal emperors Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Under Mughal rule, Agra became a centre for learning, arts, commerce, and religion, and saw the construction of the Agra Fort, Sikandra and Agra's most prized monument, the Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his favourite empress. With the decline of the Mughal empire in the late 18th century, the city fell successively first to Marathas and later to the East India Company. After Independence, Agra has developed into an industrial town, with a booming tourism industry, along with footwear, leather and other manufacturing. The Taj Mahal and the Agra Fort are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The city features mild winters, hot and dry summers and a monsoon season, and is famous for its Mughlai cuisine. Agra is included on the Golden Triangle tourist circuit, along with Delhi and Jaipur; and the Uttar Pradesh Heritage Arc, a tourist circuit of Uttar Pradesh, along with Lucknow and Varanasi.
Name
The name Agra is explained by different derivations, all of which have low verifiability. The most accepted one is that it had its origin from the Hindi word agar meaning salt-pan, a name which was given to it because the soil in the region is brackish and salt used to be made here once by evaporation. Others derive it from Hindu History claiming that the Sanskrit word agra () which means the first of the many groves and little forests where Krishna frolicked with the gopis of Vrindavan. The term Agravana hence means grove forest.
Agra was also known as Akbarabad in the Mughal era. The name was coined by the emperor Shah Jahan, in honour of his grandfather Akbar.
History
Pre-Mughal era
Agra has two histories: one of the ancient city on the east, or left, bank of the river Yamuna, going back so far as to be lost in the legends of Krishna and Mahabharata and reestablished by Sikandar Lodhi in 1504-1505; the other of the modern city, founded by Akbar in 1558, on the right bank of the river which is associated with the Mughals, and known throughout the world as the city of the Taj. Of ancient Agra little now remains except few traces of the foundations. It was a place of importance under various Hindu dynasties previous to the Muslim invasions of India, but its history is unclear, and possess little historical interest. The 17th century chronicler named Abdhullah said it was a village before the reign of Sikandar Lodi. The king of Mathura had used the Agra fort as a jail. The degradation in the status of the site was a result of the destruction brought upon it by Mahmud of Ghazni. Masud Sa'd Salman claims to have been there when Mahmud assaulted Agra, claiming the Raja Japal surrendered after seeing a nightmare. Mahmud however proceeds to pillage the city.
Agra's period of historical importance began during Sikandar Lodi's reign. In 1504-1505, Sultan Sikandar Lodi (reigned 1489–1517), the Afghan ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, rebuilt Agra and made it the seat of government. Sikandar Lodhi appointed a commission which inspected and surveyed both sides of the Yamuna from Delhi to Etawah and finally chose a place on the left bank, or the east side of the Yamuna, as the site for the city. Agra on the left bank of the Yamuna grew into a large flourishing town with royal presence, officials, merchants, scholars, theologians and artists. The city became one of the most important centres of Islamic learning in India. The sultan founded the village of Sikandra in the northern suburbs of the city and built there a Baradari of red sandstone in 1495, which was converted into a tomb by Jahangir, and now stands as the Tomb of Mariam-uz-Zamani, Akbar's empress.
After the Sultan's death in 1517, the city passed on to his son, Sultan Ibrahim Lodi (reigned 1517–26). He ruled his sultanate from Agra until he was defeated and killed by Mughal Emperor Babur in the First battle of Panipat, fought in 1526.
Mughal era
The golden age of the city began with the Mughals. Agra was the foremost city of the subcontinent and the capital of the Mughal Empire until 1658, when Aurangzeb shifted the entire court to Delhi.
Babur (reigned 1526–30), the founder of the Mughal dynasty, acquired Agra after defeating the Lodhis and the Tomaras of Gwalior in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. Babur's connection with Agra began immediately after the battle of Panipat. He sent forward his son Humayun, who occupied the town without opposition. The Raja of Gwalior, slain at Panipat, had left his family and the heads of his clan at Agra. In gratitude to Humayun, who treated them magnanimously, and protected them from plunder, they presented to him a quantity of jewels and precious stones as a token of homage. Among these was the famous diamond Koh-i-nur. Babur went on to lay out the first formal Mughal garden in India, the Aram Bagh (or Garden of Relaxation) on the banks of the river Yamuna. Babur was determined to establish the seat of his government at Agra, but was almost dissuaded by the desolate appearance of the region, as clear from this quote from his memoir Baburnama:
Very few vestiges remain of Babur's city, of his fruit and flower gardens, palaces, baths, tanks, wells and watercourses. The remnants of Babur's Charbagh can be seen today at Aram Bagh, on the east side of Yamuna. Babur was followed by his son Humayun (reigned 1530–40 and 1555–56), but he was completely defeated at Kanauj in 1539, just nine years after his ascension, by Sher Shah Suri, an Afghan nobleman, who had submitted to Babur, but revolted against his son. In this brief interruption in Mughal rule between 1540 and 1556, Sher Shah Suri, established the short lived Sur Empire, and the region was eventually reconquered by Akbar in the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556.
Under Akbar (reigned 1556–1605), and followed by his grandson Shahjahan, Agra was immortalised in the history of the world. Akbar built the modern city of Agra on the right bank of Yamuna, where the majority of its part still lies. He converted the city into a great centre of political, cultural and economic importance, connecting it with the various parts of his vast empire. Akbar raised the towering ramparts of the Agra Fort, besides making Agra a centre for learning, arts, commerce, and religion. Akbar also built a new capital city of Fatehpur Sikri, around 35 km from Agra. The new capital city was later abandoned. Before his death, Agra had become probably one of the biggest cities in the east, with huge amounts of trade and commerce happening through its bazaars. The English traveller Ralph Fitch who visited Agra in September 1585 in the life-time of Akbar, writes about the town:
These impressions of Fitch are corroborated by another European traveller, William Finch, who remarked about Agra:
Agra continued to expand and flourish during Akbar's successor Jahangir's reign as he wrote in his autobiography Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri:
Akbar's successor Jahangir (reigned 1605–27) had a love of flora and fauna and laid many gardens inside the Red Fort. Akbar's mausoleum at Sikandra was completed during Jahangir's reign. The Jahangiri Mahal in Agra fort and the tomb of Itmad-ud-daulah were also constructed during the reign of Jahangir. Jahangir loved Lahore and Kashmir more than Agra, but the latter continued to be the first city of the realm. It was, however, Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–58) whose building activity raised Agra to the pinnacle of its glory. Shah Jahan, known for his keen interest in architecture, gave Agra its most prized monument, the Taj Mahal. Built in loving memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, the mausoleum was completed in 1653. The Jama Masjid and several other notable buildings like the Diwan-i-Am, the Diwan-i-Khas, the Moti Masjid, etc., inside the fort were planned and executed under his orders.
Shah Jahan later shifted the capital to Shahjahanabad (now known as Delhi) in the year 1648, followed by his son Aurangzeb (reigned 1658–1707) moving the entire court to Delhi in 1658. With this Agra began rapidly declining. Nevertheless, the cultural and strategic importance of Agra remained unaffected and in official correspondence it continued to be referred to as the second capital of the empire.
Later periods
The decline of the Mughal empire caused the emergence of several regional kingdoms, and in the late 18th century the control of the city fell successively to the Jats, the Marathas, the Mughals, the ruler of Gwalior, and finally the British East India Company. The Jats of Bharatpur, waged many wars against the Mughal Delhi and in the 17th and 18th century carried out numerous campaigns in Mughal territories including Agra. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the city came under the influence of another post-Mughal Empire power, the Marathas, before falling into the hands of the British East India Company in 1803. In the years 1834–1836, Agra was the capital of the short-lived Presidency of Agra, administered by a Governor. It was then the capital of the North-Western Province from 1836 to 1868, governed by a Lieutenant-Governor. Agra was one of the centres of the Indian rebellion of 1857.
During the Indian rebellion of 1857, when East India Company rule across many parts of India was threatened, the news of the mutiny at Meerut reached Agra on 14 May. On 30 May some companies of the 44th and 67th Native Infantry sent to Mathura to bring in the treasury mutinied and carried off the treasury to the rebels in Delhi. With the fear of the rebellion spreading to Agra as well, the rest of these native infantry battalions, which were part of the garrison at Agra, were successfully disarmed by the British on 31 May. However, when the Gwalior contingent mutinied on 15 June, all other native units followed. On 2 July the rebel force of the Nimach and Nasirabad contingents reached Fatehpur Sikri. Fearing advance of the mutineers to Agra, some 6000 Europeans and associated people moved into the Agra Fort for safety on 3 July. On 5 July, the British force stationed there attempted to attack an approaching force of Mutineers, but was defeated, and the British retreated back into the fort. The Lieutenant-Governor, J.R. Colvin, died there, and was later buried in front of the Diwan-i-am. The mutineers, however, moved over to Delhi, it being a more important attraction for the rebels. Despite an uprising by a mob and extreme disorder in the city, the British managed to restore partial order by 8 July. Delhi, in turn, fell to the British in September, following which an infantry brigade led by Brigadier Edward Greathed arrived in Agra on 11 October without any opposition from rebels. But shortly after their arrival another force of mutineers attacked the brigade by surprise, but was defeated and routed. This minor victory for the British was named the Battle of Agra. It is to be said that, the uprising in Agra was relatively minor compared to Delhi, Jhansi, Meerut and other major rebellious cities and regions. After this British rule was again secured, and the British Raj ruled the city till the independence of India in 1947. The capital of the North Western Provinces was shifted from Agra to Allahabad in 1868. Gradually, Agra declined to the position of a mere provincial town, and its prosperity declined:
Agra's role in the Indian Independence movement is not well documented. However, in the years between the mutiny and independence Agra was a major centre of Hindi and Urdu journalism. Paliwal park(formerly Hewitt park) in Agra is named after S.K.D Paliwal, who brought out the Hindi daily Sainik.
Post Independence and Mughal legacy
Post India's independence, Agra has been a part of Uttar Pradesh and has gradually developed into an industrial city, with a significant contribution to Uttar Pradesh's economy. The city is now a popular tourist destination and hosts tourists from across the world. The Taj Mahal and Agra Fort received UNESCO World Heritage Sites status in 1983. The Taj Mahal witnesses tourists, photographers, historians and archaeologists in massive numbers all around the year. The Taj Mahal has become a symbol of India and its soft power. Post Independence, Taj Mahal has been visited by world leaders like US Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower (1959), Bill Clinton (2000), and Donald Trump (2020). Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom had visited Taj Mahal in 1961 on her India visit. Taj Mahal has also been visited by Russian President Vladimir Putin (1999), Chinese President Hu Jintao (2006), Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu (2018) and Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau (2018). Agra is the birthplace of the now extinct religion known as Din-i-Ilahi, which was founded by Akbar and also of the Radhaswami Faith, which has around two million followers worldwide. Agra is included on the Golden Triangle tourist circuit, along with Delhi and Jaipur; and the Uttar Pradesh Heritage Arc, a tourist circuit of Uttar Pradesh, along with Lucknow and Varanasi.
Geography and climate
Geography
The region around Agra consists almost entirely of a level plain, with hills in the extreme southwest. The rivers in the region include Yamuna and Chambal. The region is also watered by the Agra Canal. Millet, barley, wheat and cotton are among the crops grown in the surrounding countryside. Both Rabi and Kharif crops are cultivated. The deserted city of Fatehpur Sikri is about 40 km southwest of Agra. The sandstone hills near Fatehpur Sikri and on the south-eastern borders of the district are offshoots from the Vindhya range of Central India. Agra is about 210 km away from the National capital of New Delhi(via Yamuna Expressway), about 336 km from state capital Lucknow(via Agra-Lucknow Expressway), and about 227 km from Kanpur(via Agra-Lucknow Expressway). The city has an average elevation of 170 metres above sea level.
Climate
Broadly speaking, the climate of Agra is classified as BSh by the Köppen-Geiger climate classification system. This is the tropical and subtropical steppe climate, a major climate type of the Köppen classification that occurs primarily on the periphery of the true deserts in low-latitude regions, forming a transition between the desert climate (BW), and the more humid subtropical and tropical climates.
The city features warm winters, sweltering and dry summers and a monsoon season. The Agra district, from its proximity to the sandy Thar Desert to the west, is relatively dry, and has greater extremes of temperature than districts further east. The hot west wind, Loo blows mainly during April, May, and June with great force and can cause fatal heatstrokes. The monsoon rains usually begin in the first week in July; and generally end in mid-September. However, the monsoons, though substantial in Agra, are not quite as heavy as the monsoon in other parts of India. The weather moderates by the middle of October. The region around Agra, the northwest Indo-Gangetic plain is prone to extreme fog in the winter months, which is caused due to natural factors like low winds, low temperatures, availability of moisture apart from air pollution. This phenomenon often leads to big delays and sometimes cancellation of trains due to poor visibility. Agra has high levels of air pollution and one of the worst AQIs in India. In a study conducted by WHO using data from years 2010–2016, Agra ranked as the 8th most polluted city in India, along with other nearby cities including Delhi, Kanpur and Faridabad.
Environment
The Taj Mahal has faced significant damage due to air pollution and sewage discharge into the nearby Yamuna river. The white-marble Taj Mahal is turning yellow and green because of filthy air in the world's eighth-most polluted city. The Taj Mahal flanks the garbage-strewn Yamuna river and is often enveloped by dust and smog from smokestacks and vehicles.
The Yamuna River is one of the most polluted rivers in the world. Agra is the second largest contributor to River Yamuna's pollution, after Delhi. The river's pollution has caused several problems for the Taj Mahal such as 'Attacks by Bugs and their Green Slime', foul stench and corrosion of Taj Mahal's foundation. The river has as many as 90 nalas or drains opening into it. Though the municipality has claimed to stop 40 of these drains, the bigger ones, Bhairon, Mantola, Balkeshwar nalas continue to discharge huge quantities of untreated waste water without any check. Activists say that the Yamuna river bed between Itmad-ud-Daula and the Taj Mahal has become a dumping ground for pollutants. Polythene, plastic waste, leather cuttings from shoe factories, construction material, are all thrown into the river.
Less than 7% of the Agra district is under forest cover. The only major wildlife sanctuary near Agra is Keetham Lake, also known as Sur Sarovar Bird Sanctuary. The lake has nearly two dozen varieties of migratory and resident birds. Within the Sur Sarovar Bird Sanctuary is the Agra Bear Rescue Facility, which is India's first sanctuary for 'dancing' bears. Operated by Wildlife SOS, Free the Bears Fund and others, the facility has rehabilitate over 620 sloth bears, which were exploited by a nomadic tribe known as the Kalandars as 'dancing bears', despite the practice being illegal since 1972.
Demographics
With a population of roughly 1.6 million, Agra is the fourth-most populous city in Uttar Pradesh and twenty-third most populous city in India. As per the 2011 Census of India, Agra city has a population of 1,585,704; its metropolitan population is 1,760,285. The sex ratio of Agra city is 875 females per 1000 males, while the child sex ratio is 857 girls per 1000 boys. The average literacy rate of Agra city is 73.11% of which male and female literacy rates are 77.81% and 67.74% respectively.
Hinduism is the most followed religion in Agra city with 80.68% of its population adhering to it. Islam is second most followed religion in the city of Agra with 15.37% of the population following it. These are followed by Jainism, Sikhism, Christianity and Buddhism at 1.04%, 0.62%, 0.42% and 0.19% respectively. Approximately 1.66% stated 'No Particular Religion'.
Administration and politics
Administration
Police administration
Agra district comes under the Agra Police Zone and Agra Police Range, Agra Zone is headed by an additional director general (ADG)-ranked Indian Police Service (IPS) officer, and the Agra Range is headed by a deputy inspector general (DIG)-ranked IPS officer.
The district police is headed by a senior superintendent of police (SSP), who is an IPS officer, and is assisted by six superintendents of police or additional superintendents of police for city, east, west, crime, traffic, and protocol, either from the IPS or the Provincial Police Service. Each of the several police circles is headed by a circle officer in the rank of deputy superintendent of police.
Infrastructure and civic administration
Agra Municipal Corporation or Agra Nagar Nigam (AMC or ANN) is the Municipal Corporation responsible for the civic infrastructure and administration of the city of Agra. This civic administrative body administers the city's public services. The mayor and municipal councillors are elected to five-year terms. The Agra Municipal Corporation oversees four zones (Hariparvat, Lohamandi, Tajganj and Chhata) which are further subdivided into 100 wards. The AMC boundary encompasses an area of 121 square km. The Agra Development Authority (ADA), is develops new housing, infrastructure and colonies in the city.
Politics
Agra district has two Lok Sabha constituencies, Agra and Fatehpur Sikri, and nine Uttar Pradesh Vidhan Sabha (Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly) constituencies. The MP for Agra constituency is SP Singh Baghel, from Bharatiya Janata Party. Ahead of the election the for 2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly, it was announced that two more districts, including Agra, could become a police commissionerate before the elections.
Utilities
The electricity power distribution and bill collection in Agra is the sole responsibility of Torrent Power, a private sector company. The control of power distribution in Agra was handed over to Torrent Power from the state-owned UP Power Corporation Ltd in 2010, in an effort to move towards power reforms and cutting the massive distribution losses in the state. This was the first time power distribution was privatised in Uttar Pradesh, except for Noida-Greater Noida falling under the NCR.
Agra has three primary sources for municipal water supply: water treatment plants at Sikandra and Jeoni Mandi, and groundwater using tubewells. Since a large portion of the water demand is fulfilled from the Yamuna river, which is a highly polluted river, water quality in Agra is usually poor, with unhealthy levels of chlorine required for purification. The city's groundwater is also unfit for drinking, and is saline and high in fluoride content. Both sources breach CPCB standards. To provide the city with adequate water supply, the Gangajal pipeline project has been initiated. It includes a 130 km long pipeline laid to bring Ganga water from Bulandshahr's Upper Ganga canal to Agra. The project has been launched, but has faced criticism due to frequent pipeline leakages.
Though most of the city uses cylinders for cooking gas, piped natural gas is also available in select localities, including Kamla Nagar and others. The service is provided by Green Gas Limited.
Economy
Due to the presence of the Taj Mahal and other historic monuments, Agra has a booming tourism industry as well as royal crafts like Pietra Dura, marble inlay and carpets.
40% of the population depends largely on agriculture, and others on the leather and footwear business and iron foundries. Agra was the second most self-employed in India in 2007, behind Varanasi, followed by Bhopal, Indore and Patna. According to the National Sample Survey Organization, in 1999–2000, 431 of every 1,000 employed males were self-employed in the city, which grew to 603 per 1,000 in 2004–05.
Tourism has a significant role in the economy of Agra, with upwards of 9.5 million tourists visiting Agra and surrounding monuments in 2019. The city is home to Asia's largest spa called Kaya Kalp – The Royal Spa, at the ITC Hotel Mughal in Agra. Other hotels include Taj Hotel and Convention Centre.
Sanjay Place is the trade centre of Agra. There are about 12 major and medium scale industries, producing electrical goods, pipes, leather goods etc. There are about 7,200 small scale industrial units. Above 1.5 lakh pairs of shoes per day are manufactured in agra by the various footwear units. Agra city is also known for its leather goods, the oldest and famous leather firm Taj Leather World is in Sadar bazar. The carpets, handicrafts, zari and zardozi (embroidery work), marble and stone carving and inlay work.
Agra amassed a GDP of 40,210 crores as per the data released by UP Government for the year 2018–19, thus the 3rd rank in the state.
In the Swachh Survekshan 2020, Agra ranked 16th nation-wide, and 2nd in the state after Lucknow, which was a big jump after 86th in 2019, 102nd in 2018, and 263th in 2017. In the Smart city Rankings, which are pan-India rankings for 100 cities which is released by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs based on the progress/completion rate of Smart City projects, Agra ranked 1st, based on the rankings released based on work done by department concerned under the Smart City project from 1 October 2019, to 1 March 2020.
As of August 2020, Industrial activity in Agra has been affected as a result of the restrictions imposed due to the COVID-19 pandemic that has forced people to remain confined to their homes. The sectors worst-hit are the iron foundries, tourism, leather shoe industry in Agra. It is estimated that the loss in the tourism industry due to COVID-19 restrictions is approximately ₹ 2,200 crores.
Monuments and architecture
Taj Mahal
Taj Mahal is mausoleum complex in Agra, built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife Mumtaz Mahal ("Chosen One of the Palace"), who died in childbirth in 1631, having been the emperor's inseparable companion since their marriage in 1612. India's most famed building, it is situated in the eastern part of the city on the southern (right) bank of the Yamuna River, about 1.6 km east of the Agra Fort, also on the right bank of the Yamuna. The Taj Mahal is distinguished as the finest example of Mughal architecture, a blend of Indian, Persian, and Islamic styles. Other attractions include twin mosque buildings (placed symmetrically on either side of the mausoleum), pleasant gardens, and a museum. The complex was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983, and is one of the New Seven Wonders of the world. The Taj Mahal is the most visited tourist spot in the India, attracting nearly 6.9 million visitors in 2018–19.
The chief architect was probably the Persian architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori. Designed as a unified entity according to the principles of Mughal architecture, the five principal elements of the complex were the main gateway, garden, mosque, jawab (literally 'answer', a building mirroring the mosque), and the mausoleum, with its four minarets. The construction commenced in 1632 with upwards of twenty thousand workers from India, Persia, the Ottoman Empire, and Europe working to complete the mausoleum itself by 1639, the adjunct buildings by 1643, with decoration work continuing until at least 1647. In total, construction of the 42 acre (17 hectare) complex spanned 22 years.
It can be observed from Agra Fort from where Emperor Shah Jahan gazed at it for the last eight years of his life, a prisoner of his son Aurangzeb. Verses of the Quran are inscribed on it and at the top of the gate are 22 small domes, signifying the number of years the monument took to build. The Taj Mahal was built on a marble platform that stands above a sandstone one. The most elegant and largest dome of the Taj Mahal has a diameter of , and has a height of ; directly under this dome is the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal. Shah Jahan's tomb was erected next to hers by his son Aurangzeb. The interiors are decorated with fine Pietra dura inlay work, incorporating semi-precious stones.
However, air pollution caused by emissions from foundries and other nearby factories and exhaust from motor vehicles has damaged the Taj, notably its marble facade. A number of measures have been taken to reduce the threat to the monument, among them the closing of some foundries and the installation of pollution-control equipment at others, the creation of a parkland buffer zone around the complex, and the banning of nearby vehicular traffic, and more recently, use of 'mud pack' therapy. Perhaps most importantly, the Taj Trapezium Zone has been created around the Taj Mahal and other nearby monuments where strict pollution restrictions are in place on industries, following a 1996 Supreme Court of India ruling.
Agra Fort
The Agra Fort is a large 16th-century fortress of red sandstone located by the Yamuna River in Agra. It was first established by the Mughal Emperor Akbar and served as the seat of royal government when Agra was the capital of the Mughal empire in addition to being a military base and a royal residence. Built on the site of earlier fortifications by Islam Shah Suri(son of Sher Shah Suri), the Agra Fort lies on the right bank of the Yamuna River and is connected to the Taj Mahal (downstream, around a bend in the Yamuna), by a stretch of parkland. The fort was commissioned by Akbar in 1565, taking around eight years to build. Though much of the structure of the fort was founded by Akbar, both the interior and exterior underwent considerable changes under his son Jahangir and grandson Shah Jahan, who added many new structures, often of marble. The red sandstone walls of the roughly semi-circular structure have a perimeter of about 2.5 km, rise 21 metres high, and are surrounded by a moat. There are two entrances in the walls: the Delhi Gate facing west, the original entrance, situated nearly opposite to the Agra Fort railway station and Jama Masjid, and decorated with intricate marble inlays; and the Amar Singh Gate(also known as Hathi Pol, or Elephant Gate) facing south, presently the only means in or out of the fort complex). The complex of buildings in the fort—reminiscent of Persian and Timurid architecture, with great inspiration from Jain and Hindu architecture—forms a city within a city.
Among the major attractions in the fort is Jahangiri Mahal, the largest residence in the complex, built by Akbar as a private palace for his son Jahangir. In the Diwan-i-Am (Hall of Public Audience), the emperor would listen to public petitions and meet state officials. The Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience) was used for receiving distinguished visitors. The famous Peacock Throne was once kept there, before Aurangzeb took it to Delhi. Near the Diwan-i-Khas stands the Musamman Burj, an octagonal Tower which was the residence of Shah Jahan's favourite empress, Mumtaz Maḥal. The Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque), constructed by Shah Jahan, is a structure made entirely of white marble. The emperor's private residence was the Khas Mahal, whose marble walls were once adorned with flowers depicted by precious gems. Located to its northeast is the Sheesh Mahal (Palace of Mirrors), its walls and ceilings inlaid with thousands of small mirrors. Numerous other structures are there in the complex, including the Anguri Bagh, the Mina Bazaar etc.
In addition to its other functions, the fort also served as a prison for Shah Jahan when Aurangzeb, his son and successor as emperor, had him confined there from 1658 until his death in 1666.
Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb
The Empress Nur Jahan built Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb, sometimes called the "Baby Taj", for her father, Mirza Ghiyas Beg, the Chief Minister of the Emperor Jahangir. Located on the left bank of the Yamuna river, the mausoleum is set in a large cruciform garden, criss-crossed by water courses and walkways. The area of the mausoleum itself is about , and is built on a base that is about and about high. On each corner are hexagonal towers, about tall. Small in comparison to many other Mughal-era tombs, it is sometimes described as a jewel box. Its garden layout and use of white marble, pietra dura, inlay designs and latticework presage many elements of the Taj Mahal.
The walls are white marble from Rajasthan encrusted with semi-precious stone decorations – cornelian, jasper, lapis lazuli, onyx, and topaz in images of cypress trees and wine bottles, or more elaborate decorations like cut fruit or vases containing bouquets. Light penetrates to the interior through delicate Jali screens of intricately carved white marble.
Many of Nur Jahan's relatives are interred in the mausoleum. The only asymmetrical element of the entire complex are the tombs of her father and mother, which have been set side-by-side, a formation replicated in the Taj Mahal.
Akbar's Tomb, Sikandra
Sikandra, the last resting place of the Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great, is on the Delhi-Agra Highway, about from the Agra Fort. The four-storied tomb combines both marble and sandstone in its exterior. The construction of Sikandra was commenced in Akbar's reign, and was completed by his heir and son Jahangir in 1613. The tomb with is set amidst a large garden, and is enclosed by four battlemented walls, each with a large gateway. The 99 names of Allah have been inscribed on the tomb. The tomb has seen some damage to its minarets and other aspects, which was inflicted by the Jats of Bharatpur. The vast gardens around Sikandra are inhabited by several Blackbucks, which are in the process of being shifted to the Etawah Safari Park.
Other places of Interest
Agra also has several other places of interest, most of them from its Mughal past. They include the Jama Masjid, Chini Ka Rauza, Aram Bagh, Mariam's Tomb, Mehtab Bagh among others. The Jama Masjid is a large mosque attributed to Shah Jahan's daughter Jahanara Begum, built in 1648, notable for its unusual dome and absence of minarets. The Chini Ka Rauza, notable for its Persian influenced dome of blue glazed tiles, is dedicated to the prime minister of Shah Jahan, Afzal Khan. The Aram Bagh, commonly known as Ram Bagh today, is one of the oldest Mughal garden in India, and was built by the Mughal emperor Babur in 1528 on the bank of the Yamuna. It lies about north of the Taj Mahal. The original name of the gardens was Aram Bagh, or 'Garden of Relaxation', and this was where Babur used to spend his leisure time. Mariams Tomb, is the tomb of Mariam, the wife of Emperor Akbar. The tomb is within the compound of the Christian Missionary Society. The Mehtab Bagh, or 'Moonlight Garden', is on the opposite bank of the River Yamuna from the Taj Mahal. Agra also has a nearby bird sanctuary, Keetham Lake. Also known as Sur Sarovar Bird Sanctuary, it is situated within the Surdas Reserved Forest. The lake has nearly two dozen varieties of migratory and resident birds.
Culture
Cuisine
Agra's cuisine is derived from its Mughal past. Mughlai cuisine mainly consists of meat enriched with creamy, boldly flavoured curries, with lots of dried fruits and spices. Vegetarian dishes, using paneer instead of meat are equally loved. Mughal cuisine is available in restaurants all around the city. Petha, a sweet made using ash gourd, is one of the famous dishes of Agra, and is available in many varieties. Another dish that is endemic to Agra is Dalmoth, which is a dry snack made with spicy fried dal (lentils), nuts and raisins. The breakfast specialties include Bedai, which is a puffy kachori (made with all purpose flour, which is deep fried) with spicy filling inside and is generally served with spicy aloo sabzi and dahi.(Curd) Equally popular as a snack is Chaat, a collective term which includes snacks like Dahi-bhalla, Raj kachori, samosas, and gol gappas, among others. Paratha, a pan fried flat wheat bread which is stuffed with potatoes, cauliflower, carrots or paneer, is also popular, and eaten accompanied with curd, pickle and chutney.
Taj Mahotsav
Taj Mahotsav is a cultural festival and craft fair that was started in the year 1992 and has grown since then. The year 2019 was the 28th year of this Mahotsav. The fair is held in a big field in Shilpgram, near the eastern gate of the Taj Mahal. This festival also figures in the calendar of events of the Department of Tourism, Government of India. A large number of Indian and foreign tourists coming to Agra join this festivity. One of the objectives of this craft fair is to provide encouragement to the artisans. It also makes available works of art and craft at reasonable prices that are not inflated by high maintenance cost. The Mahotsav is hosted from 18 to 27 February every year. The theme for the 2020 Taj Mahotsav was Sanskriti ke Rang, Taj ke Sang. For the first time since 1992, Taj Mahotsav 2021 has been cancelled, because of tourism restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Transport
Air
As of April 2021, Indigo operates regular flights between Agra airport and Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Bhopal and Bengaluru. The Agra Airport at Kheria is controlled by the Indian Air Force.
Rail
The city of Agra is served by 7 Railway stations viz. Agra Cant.(major station for Delhi - Mumbai line), Raja-Ki-Mandi, Agra Fort(Major station for Jodhpur- Hawrah Line), Idgah, Agra City, Jamuna Bridge and Billochpura. Agra City comes under the jurisdiction of Agra Division of North Central Railways Zone of the Indian Railways. Agra is served by multiple mail/express trains, as well as Rajdhani, Shatabdi and Gatiman express. The Gatiman express is India's first semi-high train speed service, which cut travel time between Agra and Delhi to 100 minutes. Being a major tourist destination, Agra is also served by the luxury train Maharajas' Express.
Road
Inter-State Bus Terminal (I.S.B.T.), Idgah Bus Stand, Taj Depot and Fort Depot are the major bus stands in Agra, connecting Agra to most of the bigger cities in northern India. It is a major junction of highways with three national highways and two expressways (Yamuna Expressway & Agra Lucknow Expressway) originating from Agra.
From Delhi: NH 19 (old number: NH 2), a modern divided highway, connects the distance from Delhi to Agra.
From Delhi / Noida: Yamuna Expressway, a modern access controlled highway connects the distance from Delhi to Agra.
Yamuna Expressway (formerly Taj Expressway) is a six lane, long, controlled-access expressway, that connects New Delhi with Agra via Greater Noida and Mathura in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
NH 509 (old number: NH 93) connects Agra to Moradabad via Aligarh.
Agra Lucknow Expressway is a six lane, long, controlled-access expressway, that connects Lucknow with Agra via Kannauj and Etawah in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
Bus services are run by the UPSRTC( Other para-transit modes include rickshaws. Polluting vehicles are not allowed near the Taj Mahal. Within the city, Mahatma Gandhi Marg is the main artery.
Agra Metro
Rail India Technical and Economic Service (RITES) had proposed 30 stations, 11 underground and 19 elevated, for two corridors of the Metro Rail in the city. The two lines are Sikandra to the Taj Mahal's east gate via Agra Fort and Agra Cantt to Kalindi Vihar. On 24 March 2017, State Chief Minister Yogi Aditya Nath approved the project. In December 2017, the cabinet of the UP Government approved the DPR as per New Metro Policy. Prime Minister Narendra Modi laid the foundation stone of Agra Metro on 8 March 2019.
Education
It was during the advent of the Mughal era that Agra grew as a centre of Islamic education. In the year 1823, Agra College, one of the oldest colleges in India was formed out of a Sanskrit school established by the Scindia rulers.
In the British era, Agra became a great centre of Hindi literature with people like Babu Gulab Rai at the helm.
Universities and colleges
Agra University was established on 1 July 1927 and catered to colleges spread across the United Provinces, the Rajputana, the Central Provinces and almost to entire northern India. There are 10 institutes comprising various departments and around 700 Colleges are affiliated to this university. The historic Agra University was later rechristened as Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar University by the then Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, Mayawati.
The Institute of Mental Health and Hospital, formerly known as Agra Lunatic Asylum, was established in September 1859 governed by the State of Uttar Pradesh. It is spread over an extensive and beautiful ground of land and is well-known centre for the treatment, training, and research on mental disorders in Northern India. The institute was renamed as Mental Hospital, Agra in 1925. Presently all admissions and discharges are being done under the provisions of Mental Health Act, 1987.
Central Institute of Hindi, (also known as Kendriya Hindi Sansthan) is an autonomous institute under Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India engaged in teaching Hindi as a foreign and second language. Apart from running residential Hindi language courses for foreign students, the institute also conducts regular training programmes for teachers of Hindi belonging to non-Hindi states of India. The institute is situated at a campus on the outskirts of Agra city. Headquartered in Agra the institute has eight regional centres in Delhi, Hyderabad, Mysore, Shillong, Dimapur, Guwahati, Ahmedabad and Bhubneshwar. The institute is the only government-run institution in India established solely for research and teaching of Hindi as a foreign and second language.
Sarojini Naidu Medical College, is one of the three oldest medical colleges of India. It is located in Agra, Uttar Pradesh state. It is named after the first lady Governess of Uttar Pradesh, poet and freedom fighter, Bharat Kokila Smt. Sarojini Naidu.
Agra College, is one of the oldest institutions in India. Pandit Gangadhar Shastri, a noted Sanskrit scholar founded the college in 1823. Till 1883 the institute was a government college and after that, a Board of Trustees and a Committee of Management managed the college. Agra College produced the first graduate in Uttar Pradesh and the first Law graduate to Northern India.
St. John's College, Agra, is a college established in 1850, now part of the Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar University, earlier known as Agra University. It is amongst the oldest and one of the most beautiful Christian colleges in India. The college runs a study centre of Indira Gandhi National Open University, a central university.
Raja Balwant Singh College, Established in 1885 owes its existence to Raja Balwant Singh Ji of Awagarh who enabled the institution to grow as one of the oldest and biggest colleges of Uttar Pradesh. Raja Balwant Singh College is located at Bichpuri, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. The college is affiliated to Uttar Pradesh Technical University, Lucknow, and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar University, Agra.
Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Radhasoami Satsang Sabha, started the Radhasoami Educational Institute, as a co-educational Middle School, open to all, on 1 January 1917. It became a Degree College in 1947, affiliated to Agra University. In 1975, it formulated a programme of undergraduate studies which received approbation from the Government of Uttar Pradesh and the University Grants Commission, as a result of which in 1981 the Ministry of Education, Government of India, conferred the status of an institution deemed to be a University on the Dayalbagh Educational Institute, to implement the new scheme.
Media
Agra is home to the Dainik Jagran newspaper, the most read Hindi newspaper in India. Other widely read papers include Amar Ujala, Rajasthan Patrika,Aaj, Hindustan,The Sea Express, "daily Amar Bharti", Deepsheel Bharat, DLA. The English dailies published are The Times of India, Hindustan Times, Economic Times, and The Pioneer. The Urdy dailies published are Prabhanjan Sanket, and Inksaaf. There is also the Hindi and English mixed newspaper tabloid I-NEXT.
State-owned All India Radio has a local station in Agra which transmits various programs of mass interest. There are four private FM radio stations, 92.7 BIG FM (Reliance Broadcast Network Limited), 93.7 Fever FM, 94.5 Tadka FM and Radio City 91.9 FM. There is a community Radio Station 90.4 FM.
Notable people
Munsi Abdul Karim
Alok Sharma
Amrit Lal Nagar
Anand Swarup
Ashi Singh
Deepak Chahar
Hazur Rai Saligram Bahadur
Makund Behari Lal
Mamnoon Hussain
Mirza Ghalib
Mir Taqi Mir
Motilal Nehru
Nazir Akbarabadi
Nimmi
Raj Babbar
Rajendra Yadav
R. K. S. Bhadauria
Seth Achal Singh
Shiv Dayal Singh
Sister cities
Agra is twinned with:
Chengdu, Sichuan, China
Petra, Jordan
Tempe, Arizona
Samarkand
See also
Western Uttar Pradesh
Agra (Graduates Constituency)
References
Further reading
Agranama: The authentic book about the history of Agra by Mr. Satish Chandra Chaturvedi
Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava, History and Culture of Agra (Souvenir), 1956
External links
Metropolitan cities in India
Cities and towns in Agra district
Former capital cities in India
Populated places established in 1504
Tourism in Uttar Pradesh
Cities in Uttar Pradesh
Agra district
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitt%20Meadows
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Pitt Meadows
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Pitt Meadows is a city in southwestern British Columbia, Canada, and a member municipality of the Metro Vancouver Regional District. Incorporated in 1914, it has a land area of and a population of 18,573 (as of 2016).
History
Early settlement
Indigenous Peoples resided in the Pitt Meadows area approximately 1000 years ago. James McMillan explored the area in 1874. Europeans started a settlement known as Bonson's Landing in the area in the 1870s. Early settlers were mostly Anglo-Saxon until after 1910. The municipality takes its name from the Pitt River and Pitt Lake. The river, the lake and the settlement were apparently named for British prime minister William Pitt the Younger. The Municipality of Maple Ridge, which included the Pitt Meadows area, was incorporated in 1874. In 1885, the Canadian Pacific Railway was constructed through Pitt Meadows to Port Moody, British Columbia.
The Pitt Meadows General Store, which was constructed in 1886, was moved to its current location in 1908. A garden has existed since the early years of development on the Site. The store, which contained the community's first Post Office and the first telephone, has been the home of the Pitt Meadows Museum and Archives since June 1998.
In 1892, residents of the Pitt Meadows area petitioned for their removal from the District of Maple Ridge. In 1893, the first dyking district was organized. The major Fraser River Flood event flooded many acres of land in the spring of 1894.
Incorporation
Pitt Meadows reverted to unorganized territory from 1892 until it was separately incorporated as a municipality in 1914. In 1914, Pitt Meadows was a small, agricultural community of less than 250 individuals which supplied Vancouver and New Westminster with produce and dairy products. After 1910, many French Canadians and Japanese arrived as settlers.
War years
During World War II, Pitt Meadows lost servicemen included: Aircraftman 2nd Class William George Bend; Ordinary Seaman John Pastorek and Flight Lieutenant Robert Arnold Samuel Lasser.
After World War II
A large group of Dutch farmers reclaimed much of the low-lying land in Pitt Meadows after World War II. Pitt Meadows joined the Greater Vancouver Water District in 1948.
In 1948, a major flood occurred in the Fraser valley after cool weather through mid-May allowed an unusually large snowpack to accumulate, and a sudden shift to warm temperatures caused a fast melt.
A highway bridge was constructed in 1957 over the Pitt River.
The Pitt Meadows Airport opened in 1963.
Heritage Preservation Area
A Heritage Preservation Area contains several buildings of significant heritage value, including the old General Store (now the Pitt Meadows Museum) and Hoffman and Sons Garage. Hans Hoffmann, a mechanic, worked in and then ran the family business of Hoffmann and Son Ltd. for almost 45 years. In 1974, Hans began his hobby of collecting and restoring stationary gasoline engines.
Widgeon Valley National Wildlife Area
The Widgeon Valley National Wildlife Area (NWA), which is 125 ha in size located near Pitt Lake, was purchased by the Nature Trust of British Columbia in 1973 and declared a NWA in October 1973. Nearby areas of high wetland value include Widgeon Slough and Addington Point along the Pitt River, the shallow southern end of Pitt Lake, and the extensive dyked wet areas of the Pitt Meadows. As a result, the valley is very attractive to wildlife and for human recreational pursuits.
Cenotaph
In 1990, the Pitt Meadows Cenotaph was constructed "in memory of all those who have served and died for us." The City of Pitt Meadows received funding for the restoration of the Pitt Meadows Cenotaph, in 2009. In 2012, British Columbia formally apologized to the Japanese-Canadian community for the internment of thousands of people during the Second World War. Tosh Suzuki's family spent nine years in Manitoba after being displaced from its Pitt Meadows berry farm.
Metro Vancouver
In 1995, Pitt Meadows became a member municipality of Metro Vancouver. Pitt Meadows is one of 21 municipalities plus Electoral Area “A” that comprises the Greater Vancouver Regional District.
Symbols
The announcement of the Letters Patent for Pitt Meadows, and Grant of Arms, Supporters, Flag and Badge was made on March 12, 2005, in Volume 139, page 688 of the Canada Gazette. The Arms consist of the colours purple and gold, its heron emblem and a band running parallel to the edge of the shield which represents the dykes which protect the lands of the municipality. The crenellated outer edge represents gearwheels and refer to the historic Hoffman garage. The horizontal bands symbolize the CP railway line around which the District grew. The motto is Prosperity through endeavour. The crest coronet represents Golden Ears peaks to the north of the District. The white drops in the crest recall the early dairy industry. The Katzie eagle symbol in the crest recalls the original Aboriginal inhabitants and recreational aviation.
Incorporation
The District of Pitt Meadows was incorporated on January 1, 2007 as the City of Pitt Meadows.
Natural disaster
In 2007, emergency workers knocked on thousands of doors in Pitt Meadows and Maple Ridge, warning residents to prepare for flooding that could put 95 per cent of Pitt Meadows under water.
Centennial
In 2014, in recognition of Pitt Meadows' centennial, anniversary special festivities and a Community Birthday Party were held. The Mission Folk Music Festival Society will present the 27th and 28th editions of the Mission Folk Music Festival in 2014/2015.
Geography
Pitt Meadows is located in the Lower Fraser Valley, east of Vancouver. Most residents live in the urban town centre, which is
located on a highland area. Eighty-two percent of Pitt Meadows is within the Green Zone, lands, including watersheds and
200-year floodplains, forests, wilderness areas, wildlife habitats, wetlands, recreational areas, farms and forestry areas that are fundamental to Metro Vancouver's character and ecology. Pitt Meadows, an agricultural town, is over 68% within a flood plain with 86% of Pitt Meadows lying within the BC Agricultural Land Reserve as protected farmland. Lands designated as environmentally sensitive include wildlife conservation areas such as Pitt-Addington Marsh and Codd Wetland Ecological Conservancy Area, and the banks of the Fraser, Pitt and Alouette Rivers. Other areas of Pitt Meadows that are within the Green Zone include most of the river side of the dikes, municipal parks and greenways.
Pitt Meadows is sandwiched on the north side of the Fraser River at its junction with the Pitt River on the west and Maple Ridge on the east. Two arms of the Alouette River run through Pitt Meadows, along with a number of other sloughs and waterways. To the north, Pitt Lake is the largest freshwater tidal lake in the world, connected by the Pitt River to the Fraser River, which is the southern boundary of Pitt Meadows. The Pitt River flows backwards at high tide and has created a delta where it joins Pitt lake. The Thompson Mountain Range rises along the Pitt Meadows's northeast edge. Pitt Meadows is protected from flooding by 64 kilometres of dikes which provide a multi-use trail system alongside the farmland and marshes, and offer views of the mountains to the North. The northern sector of the flood plain, closest to Pitt Lake, presents several challenges to development; it is largely a peat bog containing a large wildlife refuge. The deep peat and bog soil conditions sometimes require considerable fill and/or pre-loading prior to development. On the west side of the Pitt River is Port Coquitlam. Pitt Meadows is located between the rapidly developing communities of Coquitlam, Port Coquitlam, Maple Ridge, Surrey and Langley.
Climate
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Pitt Meadows recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
Transportation
River
Pitt Meadows is naturally isolated from the rest of the Lower Mainland by the Pitt River and the Fraser River. The major urbanized portion of the Lower Mainland is located on the Burrard Peninsula, on the other side of the Pitt River from Pitt Meadows. The Fraser, Pitt and Alouette Rivers played a pivotal role in the development of Pitt Meadows by providing transportation routes, fishing areas and nourishing flood water to the farm areas. Today, the Fraser River is an extensively used navigation channel for both industrial traffic and recreational use. Although the Pitt River sees less traffic, its foreshore is an important area for log storage. The Alouette River continues to be important to the farming areas.
Canadian Pacific Railway
Its first land-based transportation route came in 1885 with the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) through to Port
Moody. The main portion of the town of Pitt Meadows is bisected by the CPR mainline. The highway bridge over the Pitt River was opened in 1957. As of 2003, the CPR intermodal yards and distribution centre west of the Pitt Meadows station in the town centre are being expanded.
TransLink's West Coast Express commuter trains connect Pitt Meadows to Vancouver and Mission.
Airport
In 1963 the Pitt Meadows Airport was opened. There are height restrictions on buildings due to the proximity of the Pitt Meadows Airport to the southeast, although the recent development of a 10-storey building less than from the east–west runways puts those restrictions in doubt. In 2003, the airport was undergoing expansion to support scheduled passenger service for short-haul prop-driven planes. The airport is also home to a skydiving school, as well as a number of other businesses. On August 3, 2008, a Beech 65-A90 King Air took off from Pitt Meadows Airport, with the pilot and seven parachutists for a local sky diving flight. The pilot reported an engine failure and turned back towards Pitt Meadows Airport, which could not be reached and a forced landing was carried out in a cranberry field, west of the airport. Four of the parachutists received serious injuries and the aircraft was substantially damaged although there was no fire and the occupants were evacuated. Pitt Meadows Water Aerodrome, (TC LID: CAJ8), is located 1 nautical mile (1.9 km; 1.2 mi) southwest of Pitt Meadows.
Bridges & highway
The Lougheed Highway is the main road route through Pitt Meadows and along the north shore of the Fraser River. The Pitt River Bridge links it to the Burrard Peninsula to the west.
The Pitt River Bridge and Mary Hill Interchange Project included a new seven-lane bridge that replaced the existing swing bridges, as well as an interchange to replace the current Lougheed Highway and Mary Hill Bypass intersection. Golden Ears Bridge, which connects Pitt Meadows and Maple Ridge to Surrey and Langley, opened in 2009. Golden Ears is the name of the summit that lies north of Pitt Meadows. In 2011, Lougheed Highway upgrades included the widening and extension of the westbound HOV lane between the Golden Ears Bridge and Harris Road, the addition of bus queue jump lanes in both directions, at the Kennedy Road intersection leading to and from the Pitt River Bridge. The Golden Ears Bridge, completed in summer of 2009, connects Pitt Meadows and Maple Ridge with the communities of Langley and Surrey south across the Fraser River. Construction of the new Pitt River Bridge, connecting Pitt Meadows with Port Coquitlam to the west, was completed in autumn 2009.
Public transportation
Coast Mountain Bus Company, an operating company of TransLink, operates bus routes within Pitt Meadows, all of which connect to various West Coast Express stations. Route #701 is a major route that takes commuters from Coquitlam down to Port Coquitlam and into Pitt Meadows and Maple Ridge. Route 791 is a major route that takes commuters from Braid station to Pitt Meadows via the Mary Hill Bypass. The 722 and 719 community shuttle go from Osprey Village through different residential Pitt Meadows routes, both ending in Meadowtown Centre.
In 2018, a TransLink bus stop on Highway 7 in Pitt Meadows was voted the "sorriest bus stop in America" by StreetsBlog.
Accessibility
The Pitt Meadows Paddling Club received the 2011 Maple Ridge-Pitt Meadows Accessibility and Inclusion Award in both the Leisure and Recreation and the Volunteer Categories; the PaddleALL programs are for individuals with cognitive and physical disabilities. Access Transit provides accessible door-to-door transportation service in the Metro Vancouver region, which includes Pitt Meadows using specially equipped vehicles designed to carry passengers with physical or cognitive disabilities who are unable to use public transit without assistance.
Economy
As a primarily residential area, approximately 85% of Pitt Meadows residents commute to work beyond its borders. Within the community, the largest employment sectors are, in order of importance: Primary (20%); Education and Health (19%); Accommodation, Food, and Beverage (16%); and Construction (9%).
In addition to the commercial activity that already exists in Pitt Meadows, a new retail shopping centre, Meadowtown Centre, has been built on the border with Maple Ridge. This new shopping centre includes a Real Canadian Superstore, Jysk/Winners/Homesense, Michaels, SportChek, Tim Hortons, a Telus retailer, as well as Bell, EB Games, a Liquor Store, a Cineplex Odeon, and a La Vie En Rose. Despite recent additions to its non-agricultural economy, 86% of the Pitt Meadows landmass is located within the province's Agricultural Land Reserve.
Pitt Meadows' agricultural lands includes extensive large parcels located in the southwest and northeast portions of the City. Major agricultural products include cranberry and blueberry farms, horticultural products, greenhouse crops (cut flowers and specialty peppers), grazing, dairy farming, and other farm activities. Agri-tourism is developed in conjunction with agricultural operations. The Meadows Maze, for example, one of the largest corn mazes in the Pacific Northwest is on the Hopcott Farm; which was purchased in 1932. A growing trend, particularly in areas close to urban centers, is the use of agricultural lands for rural estate use with little or no agricultural use of land.
Politics
Pitt Meadows is represented by a mayor and six councillors. The mayor is Bill Dingwall and the councilors are Mike Hayes, Anena Simpson, Tracy Miyashita, Nicole MacDonald, Bob Meachen and Gwen O'Connell. In 2017 former Pitt Meadows councilor David Murray was convicted for sexually assaulting a 14 year old girl in 1992 while in his 30s. After conviction he resigned his position as councilor. He served 9 months in prison.
Education
Pitt Meadows has one secondary school, and four elementary schools, all of which are part of School District 42 Maple Ridge-Pitt Meadows. Pitt Meadows Secondary School (PMSS) in particular is well known around the Fraser Valley and the Greater Vancouver Area for its soccer and hockey programs, some of which can be offered as an alternative to Physical Education. The school has enrolled around 800 students. PMSS has a Student Council which as of 2019 changed its logo to be a female marauder.
Recreation
In Pitt Meadows, there are cultural, recreation and other community facilities and public uses in the Civic Centre, the Town Centre and the Sawyer's Landing Waterfront Village. River access park areas provide active and passive use, parking, viewpoints and picnic use. There are public sports facilities, open spaces, trails and bike paths, protected natural areas and recreational programs. Indoor recreational facilities in Pitt Meadows include a recreation centre and ice skating rinks. Joint agreements with Maple Ridge and the School District allow the provision of community recreation facilities and programs to Pitt Meadows residents. Outdoor recreational opportunities include a system of dikes top trails along the river systems of Pitt Meadows for walking, cycling and equestrian use as well as boating opportunities on the Alouette, Fraser and Pitt Rivers.
Notable residents
Mike Kubat, writer
Brendan Morrison, hockey player
Molly Parker, actress
Devin Townsend, musician
TV and film
Much of the movie Happy Gilmore, including most of the golf course scenes, was filmed in Pitt Meadows at the Swan-e-set Bay Resort & Country Club. In the pilot episode of Smallville, the scene where the Porsche drives off the bridge was filmed at Silverbridge on Harris Road. The movie Duets starring Gwyneth Paltrow & Paul Giamatti had a scene filmed at the Ramada Inn on Lougheed Highway. The movie 3000 Miles to Graceland was filmed at a saw mill on Bonson Rd.
References
External links
Cities in British Columbia
Lower Mainland
Populated places in Greater Vancouver
Populated places on the Fraser River
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356287
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Bailey%20Aldrich
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Thomas Bailey Aldrich
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Thomas Bailey Aldrich (; November 11, 1836 – March 19, 1907) was an American writer, poet, critic, and editor. He is notable for his long editorship of The Atlantic Monthly, during which he published writers including Charles W. Chesnutt. He was also known for his semi-autobiographical book The Story of a Bad Boy, which established the "bad boy's book" subgenre in nineteenth-century American literature, and for his poetry.
Biography
Early life and education
Thomas Bailey Aldrich was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire on November 11, 1836. When Aldrich was a child, his father moved to New Orleans, but after 10 years, Aldrich was sent back to Portsmouth to prepare for college. This period of his life is partly described in his semi-autobiographical novel The Story of a Bad Boy (1870), in which "Tom Bailey" is the juvenile hero.
Early career
Aldrich abandoned college preparations after his father's death in 1849. At age 16 in 1852, he entered his uncle's New York business office and became a constant contributor to the newspapers and magazines. Aldrich befriended other young poets, artists and wits of the metropolitan bohemia of the early 1860s, including Edmund Clarence Stedman, Richard Henry Stoddard, Fitz Hugh Ludlow, Bayard Taylor and Walt Whitman. From 1856 to 1859, Aldrich was on the staff of the Home Journal, then edited by Nathaniel Parker Willis. During the Civil War he was the editor of the New York Illustrated News.
In 1865 Aldrich returned to New England, and in Boston he edited the eclectic weekly literary magazine Every Saturday, published by Ticknor and Fields and successors (Field, Osgood; James R. Osgood & Co.; H. O. Houghton & Co.), throughout its run from 1866 to 1874. From 1881 to 1890, he edited The Atlantic Monthly, Boston's most important magazine. As editor of The Atlantic he created tension with his publisher Henry Oscar Houghton by refusing to publish articles that Houghton commissioned from friends including Woodrow Wilson and Francis Marion Crawford. When Houghton chastised Aldrich for turning down submissions from his friend Daniel Coit Gilman, Aldrich threatened to resign and finally did so in June 1890.
Beginning with the collection of stories entitled Marjorie Daw and Other People (1873), Aldrich wrote works of realism and quiet humor. His novels Prudence Palfrey (1874), The Queen of Sheba (1877), and The Stillwater Tragedy (1880) had more dramatic action. The first portrayed Portsmouth with the affectionate touch shown in the shorter humorous tale, A Rivermouth Romance (1877). In An Old Town by the Sea (1893), Aldrich commemorated his birthplace again. Travel and description are the theme of From Ponkapog to Pesth (1883).
Marriage and later life
Aldrich married in 1865 Lilian Woodman of New York, and had two sons. Mark Twain apparently detested Aldrich's wife, writing in 1893: "Lord, I loathe that woman so! She is an idiot—an absolute idiot—and does not know it ... and her husband, the sincerest man that walks ... tied for life to this vacant hellion, this clothes-rack, this twaddling, blethering, driveling blatherskite!" For her own part, Lilian Aldrich wrote affectionately of Mark Twain in her memoir Crowding Memories (1920). In Chapter 12, however, she does write apologetically about their first encounter, when she treated him coldly, not being informed of his identity and mistakenly believing him to be inebriated.
The Aldriches were close friends of Henry L. Pierce, former mayor of Boston and chocolate magnate. At his death in 1896, he willed them his estate at Canton, Massachusetts.
In 1901, Aldrich's son Charles, married the year before, was diagnosed with tuberculosis. Aldrich built two houses, one for his son and one for him and his family, in Saranac Lake, New York, then the leading treatment center for the disease. On March 6, 1904, Charles Aldrich died of tuberculosis, age thirty-four. The family left Saranac Lake and never returned.
Aldrich died in Boston on March 19, 1907. His last words were recorded as, "In spite of it all, I am going to sleep; put out the lights." His Life was written by Ferris Greenslet (1908). He is buried on Grapevine Path lot 6109 of Mount Auburn Cemetery Cambridge, Massachusetts.
In 1920, Aldrich's widow published her memoirs, Crowding Memories, which includes accounts of her husband's friendships with Mark Twain, William Dean Howells, Bret Harte, Henry James, James Russell Lowell, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Edwin Booth, and other cultural luminaries.
Literary style and criticism
Aldrich wrote both in prose and verse. He was well known for his form in poetry. His successive volumes of verse, chiefly The Ballad of Babie Bell (1856), Pampinea, and Other Poems (1861), Cloth of Gold (1874), Flower and Thorn (1876), Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book (1881), Mercedes and Later Lyrics (1883), Wyndham Towers (1889), and the collected editions of 1865, 1882, 1897 and 1900, showed him to be a poet of lyrical skill and light touch. Critics believed him to show the influence of Robert Herrick.
He was a critic of the dialect verse that was popular at the time. In a 1900 letter referencing contemporary poet James Whitcomb Riley, he wrote, "The English language is too sacred a thing to be mutilated and vulgarized".
Aldrich's longer narrative or dramatic poems were not as successful. Notable work includes such lyrics as "Hesperides", "When the Sultan Goes to Ispahan", "Before the Rain", "Nameless Pain", "The Tragedy", "Seadrift", "Tiger Lilies", "The One White Rose", "Palabras Cariñosas", "Destiny", and the eight-line poem "Identity".
Published works
Daisy's Necklace: and What Came of It (1857)
The Course of True Love Never Did Run Smooth (1858)
Out of His Head (1862)
Père Antoine's Date Palm (1866)
Pansie's Wish: A Christmas Fantasy, with a Moral (1870)
The Story of a Bad Boy (1870)
Marjorie Daw and Other People (1873)
Prudence Palfrey (1874)
The Queen of Sheba (1877)
A Rivermouth Romance (1877)
The Story of a Cat (1879)
The Stillwater Tragedy (1880)
From Ponkapog to Pesth (1883)
The Second Son (1888)
Two Bites at a Cherry, with Other Tales (1894)
A Sea Turn and Other Matters (1902)
Ponkapog Papers (1903)
References
Citations
Sources
External links
1918 entry in The Cyclopaedia of American Biography (Appletons', enlarged)
Guide to Thomas Bailey Aldrich papers at Houghton Library, Harvard University
Thomas Bailey Aldrich House at Strawbery Banke museum, Portsmouth, NH
Works with text by Aldrich, Thomas Bailey at IMSLP
The Papers of Thomas Bailey Aldrich at Dartmouth College Library
1836 births
1907 deaths
Novelists from New Hampshire
19th-century American novelists
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
People from Portsmouth, New Hampshire
Poets from Massachusetts
Writers from Boston
The Atlantic (magazine) people
American magazine editors
Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
Poets from New Hampshire
People from Saranac Lake, New York
American male novelists
American male poets
19th-century American poets
19th-century American male writers
Novelists from Massachusetts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Alexander%2C%20Lord%20Stirling
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William Alexander, Lord Stirling
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William Alexander, also known as Lord Stirling (1726 – 15 January 1783), was a Scottish-American major general during the American Revolutionary War. He was considered male heir to the Scottish title of Earl of Stirling through Scottish lineage (being the senior male descendant of the paternal grandfather of the 1st Earl of Stirling, who had died in 1640), and he sought the title sometime after 1756. His claim was initially granted by a Scottish court in 1759; however, the House of Lords ultimately over-ruled Scottish law and denied the title in 1762. He continued to hold himself out as "Lord Stirling" regardless.
Lord Stirling commanded a brigade at the Battle of Long Island, his rearguard action resulting in his capture but enabling General George Washington's troops to escape. Stirling later was returned by prisoner exchange and received a promotion; continuing to serve with distinction throughout the war. He also was trusted by Washington and, in 1778, exposed the Conway Cabal.
Early life
William was born 1726 in New York City in what was then the Province of New York, a part of British America. He was the son of lawyer James Alexander and merchant Mary Spratt Provoost Alexander. His nephew was Senator John Rutherfurd (1760–1840).
He was educated, ambitious, and proficient in mathematics and astronomy, he then joined his mother, Mary Alexander, the widow of David Provost, in the provision business left her by the death of her first husband.
Earldom of Stirling
The Earldom of Stirling in the Scottish peerage became dormant or extinct upon the death of Henry Alexander, 5th Earl of Stirling. William Alexander's father, James Alexander, who had fled from Scotland in 1716 after participating in the Jacobite rising, did not claim the title. Upon his father's death, William lay claim to the title and filed suit. His relationship to the 5th Earl was not through heirs of the body, but through heirs male collateral. Thus, he was not entitled to a title inherited only by the male line descendants of the 1st Earl. However, the inheritance by proximity of blood had been questioned. It was settled in his favor, by a unanimous vote of a jury of twelve in a Scottish court in 1759, and William claimed the disputed title of Earl of Stirling. It is not clear whether the case went to court because of an unfavorable answer from the Lord Lyon King of Arms concerning the peerage.
Legal opinion was that this was a "Scottish heir" problem, so the title right was solved. This might have been unopposed, as indisputable peerage, except there was a catch. The two sponsors, Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll, and John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, encouraged William Alexander through representatives to seek the title. The goal was vast land holdings in America that the holder of the title was to enjoy. The sponsors were to receive money and land if William was successful. With this in mind, William decided to petition the House of Lords. A friend and professional agent in Scotland, Andrew Stuart, wrote and advised William not to petition the House of Lords. He felt that the right of indisputable peerage demanded that William just claim the titles as others had done. His opinion was that others lay similar claims to titles so he would not be opposed. It is possible William did not want to commit a crime, or be found out, and if the House of Lords advanced his claim it would be forever legal. One problem was that to prove his claim in court, two old men were called upon to testify that William did in fact descend from the first Earl through his uncle named John Alexander. This might have been persuasive in a Scottish court but might be considered dubious in England.
He inherited a large fortune from his father, dabbled in mining and agriculture, and lived a life filled with the trappings befitting a Scottish lord. This was an expensive lifestyle, and he eventually went into debt to finance it. He began building his grand estate in the Basking Ridge section of Bernards Township, New Jersey, and upon its completion, sold his home in New York and moved there. George Washington was a guest there on several occasions during the revolution and gave away Alexander's daughter at her wedding. In 1767, the Royal Society of Arts awarded Alexander a gold medal for accepting the society's challenge to establish viticulture and wine making in the North American colonies by cultivating 2,100 grape (V. vinifera) vines on his New Jersey estate. Alexander was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1770.
American Revolution
When the American Revolutionary War began, Stirling was made a colonel in the New Jersey colonial militia. Because he was wealthy and willing to spend his own money in support of the Patriot cause, he outfitted his unit, the 1st New Jersey Regiment, at his own expense. He distinguished himself early by leading a group of volunteers in the capture of an armed British naval transport.
The Second Continental Congress appointed him brigadier general in the Continental Army in March 1776.
Prisoner of war
At the Battle of Long Island, in August of that year, Stirling led a brigade in Sullivan's division. He held against repeated attacks by a superior British Army force under the command of Gen. James Grant at the Old Stone House near Gowanus Creek and took heavy casualties. Additional redcoats had made a wide flanking attack sweeping to the east through the lightly-guarded Jamaica Pass, one of a series of low entrances through the ridge line of hills running east to west through the center of Long Island, catching the Patriot forces on their left side. Sterling ordered his brigade to retreat while he himself kept the 1st Maryland Regiment as rear-guard. Though heavily outnumbered he led a counter-attack, eventually dispersing his men before being overwhelmed. Stirling himself was taken prisoner but he had held the British forces occupied long enough to allow the main body of Washington's army to escape to defensive positions at Brooklyn Heights, along the East River shoreline. Later, under the cover of a miraculous fog which enveloped the river, Washington was able to barge his remaining troops and equipment across back to Manhattan Island and New York City.
Because of his actions at Long Island, one newspaper called Stirling "the bravest man in America", and he was praised by both Washington and the British for his bravery and audacity. Later a commemorative monument was erected at the site of the military engagements and embattled retreat and the plot of land deeded to the State of Maryland near Prospect Park as a sacred parcel of "blood-soaked Maryland soil".
Balance of War
Stirling was released in a prisoner exchange, in return for governor Montfort Browne, and promoted to the rank of major general, and became one of Washington's most able and trusted generals. Washington held him in such high regard that during the second Middlebrook encampment, he placed him, headquartered at the nearby Van Horne House, in command of the Continental Army for nearly two months, from 21 December 1778, when he left to meet with Congress in Philadelphia, until he returned about 5 February 1779.
Throughout most of the war Stirling was considered to be third or fourth in rank behind General Washington. At the Battle of Trenton on 26 December 1776, he received the surrender of a Hessian German mercenary regiment. On 26 June 1777, at Matouchin, he awaited an attack, contrary to Washington's orders. His position was turned and his division defeated, losing two guns and a hundred fifty men in the Battle of Short Hills. Subsequent battles at Brandywine and Germantown in Pennsylvania during the campaign to defend the Patriot capital of Philadelphia and Monmouth in New Jersey, cemented his reputation for bravery and sound tactical judgment.
Stirling also played a part in exposing the Conway Cabal, a conspiracy of disaffected Continental officers looking to remove Washington as Commander-in Chief and replace him with General Horatio Gates. According to one author, "Lord Stirling never gave dull parties. His dinners were a Niagara of liquor. His love of the bottle was notorious..." One of Gates' aides, James Wilkinson stopped at Stirling's headquarters at Reading, Pennsylvania and stayed for dinner because it was raining. Wilkinson got drunk and began repeating criticisms of Washington that he had heard from other officers. Finally, he claimed to have read a letter from Thomas Conway to Gates that stated, "Heaven has determined to save your country or a weak general and bad counselors would have ruined it". The loyal Stirling wrote to Washington the next day and repeated what Wilkinson said. Washington, in turn, wrote to Conway, repeating what Stirling had written. Once exposed, the cabal went to pieces. Conway denied ever writing the note, Wilkinson called Stirling a liar, and Gates made statements that made himself look guilty.
At the Battle of Monmouth on 28 June 1778, Stirling commanded the American Left Wing. This included the 1st (429), 2nd (487), and 3rd Pennsylvania (438) Brigades, John Glover’s (636), Ebenezer Learned's (373), and John Paterson’s (485) Massachusetts Brigades. He displayed tactical judgment in posting his batteries, and repelled with heavy loss an attempt to turn his flank. During the devastating winter encampment at Valley Forge, northwest of British–held Philadelphia, his military headquarters have been preserved. In January 1780, he led an ineffective raid against Staten Island on the western shores of New York Bay.
When Washington and the French comte de Rochambeau took their conjoined armies south for the climactic Battle of Yorktown in 1781, Stirling was appointed commander of the elements of the Northern Army left behind to guard New York and was sent up the Hudson River to Albany where he died shortly thereafter in January 1783.
Personal life
In 1747, married Sarah Livingston (1725–1805), the daughter of Philip Livingston, 2nd Lord of Livingston Manor. Sarah was also the sister of Governor William Livingston. Together, William and Sarah had two daughters and one son:
William Alexander
Mary Alexander (1749–1820), who married wealthy merchant Robert Watts (1743–1814), son of John Watts of New York.
Catherine Alexander (1755–1826), who married Continental Congressman William Duer (1743–1799).
Always a heavy drinker, Alexander was in poor health, suffering from severe gout and rheumatism, and died in Albany on 15 January 1783. His death, just months before the official end of the American War of Independence with the Treaty of Paris of 1783, is the probable reason that he is not as well known today as many other Revolutionary War generals. Still, his significant contributions made him one of the most important figures of the American Revolution. He was buried in the Churchyard of Trinity Church, facing the historic Wall Street district (adjoining nearby St. Paul's Chapel), in New York City.
Descendants
Through his daughter Catherine, he is grandfather to college president William Alexander Duer (1780–1858) and noted lawyer and jurist John Duer (1782–1858). He is also great-grandfather of U.S. Congressman William Duer (1805–1879) and great-great-great-grandfather of writer and suffragette Alice Duer Miller (1874–1942).
Through his daughter Mary, he is great-grandfather of General Stephen Watts Kearny (1794–1848) and great-great-grandfather of General Philip Kearny, Jr. (1815–1862), who died in action during the U.S. Civil War.
Legacy
In honor of Alexander:
MS51, a Middle School on the former Gowanus battlefield, is named William Alexander Middle School.
Stirling, New Jersey, an unincorporated community in Long Hill Township is located a short distance from Alexander's house in Basking Ridge.
The Lord Stirling School in New Brunswick, New Jersey is named for him.
Lord Stirling Park in Basking Ridge, New Jersey is located on part of his estate.
Sterling Hill Mine was named after him, as he once owned the property
Lord Stirling 1770s Festival
The town of Sterling, Massachusetts.
Sterling Place in Brooklyn, NY.
See also
Lord Stirling Manor Site
Lord Stirling Park
References
Further reading
William Alexander, Lord Stirling: George Washington's Noble General, Paul David Nelson, University of Alabama Press, 2003,
Alexander, William, pages 175/76 in: Dictionary of American biography, Volume I. Edited by Alan Johnson, Publisher: C. Scribner's Sons New York, 1943
The life of William Alexander, Earl of Stirling, Major-General in the Army of the United States during the Revolution: with selections from his correspondence. Collections of New Jersey Historical Society, Vol. II. By his Grandson William Alexander Duer. Published by Wiley & Putnam, New York 1847
External links
Lord Stirling's Beacons
Lord Stirling's Legacy and his grand Stirling Manor
1726 births
1783 deaths
American Revolutionary War prisoners of war held by Great Britain
Continental Army generals
Members of the New Jersey Provincial Council
Continental Army officers from New Jersey
People from Bernards Township, New Jersey
Military personnel from New York City
American people of Dutch descent
American people of Scottish descent
Royal Army Service Corps officers
British military personnel of the French and Indian War
New Jersey wine
People of colonial New York
People of colonial New Jersey
Burials at Trinity Church Cemetery
Presidents of the Saint Andrew's Society of the State of New York
18th-century American politicians
William
Members of the American Philosophical Society
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alen%C3%A7on
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Alençon
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Alençon (, , ; ) is a commune in Normandy, France, capital of the Orne department. It is situated west of Paris. Alençon belongs to the intercommunality of Alençon (with 52,000 people).
History
The name of Alençon is first recorded in a document dated in the seventh century. During the tenth century, Alençon was a buffer state between Normandy and the Maine regions.
In 1049–1051, William Duke of Normandy, later known as William the Conqueror and king of England, laid siege to the town, which had risen in support of the Count of Anjou along with two other towns of the Bellême estates, Domfront (then in Maine) and Bellême (held directly from King Henry I of France). According to Duke William's chaplain and panegyrist, William of Poitiers, the defenders of the fortress refused to surrender and mockingly waved animal hides from the castle walls, referencing William's lineage as the grandson of a tanner. In response to this, William had 32 prisoners of the town's hands and feet cut off, prompting a sudden surrender. Upon hearing of this event, the town of Domfront also surrendered.
Alençon was occupied by the English during the Anglo-Norman wars of 1113 to 1203.
The city became the seat of a dukedom in 1415, belonging to the sons of the King of France until the French Revolution, and some of them played important roles in French history: see Duke of Alençon. The French Revolution caused relatively little disorder in this area although there were some royalist uprisings nearby.
A long-standing local fabric industry gave birth to the town's famous point d'Alençon lace in the 18th century. The economic development of the nineteenth century was based on iron foundries and mills in the surrounding region. In the first half of the twentieth century the city developed a flourishing printing industry.
Alençon was home to Sts. Louis Martin and Marie-Azélie Guérin, the parents of St. Thérèse of Lisieux. They were the first spouses in the history of the Catholic Church to be proposed for sainthood as a couple, in 2008. Zélie and Louis were married at the Basilica of Notre-Dame in Alençon on 13 July 1858 and spent their whole married life in Alençon, where Thérèse was born in January 1873 and spent her early childhood until the death of her mother in 1877.
On 17 June 1940 the German Army took occupation of Alençon. On 12 August 1944 Alençon was the first French city to be liberated by the French Army under General Leclerc, after minor bomb damage.
After the war the population sharply increased and new industries settled. Many of these were related to plastics and the town is now a major plastics educational centre.
Climate
Population
Heraldry
Economy
In the seventeenth century, Alençon was chiefly noted for its lace called point d'Alençon.
Today, Alençon is home to a prosperous plastics industry, and, since 1993, to a plastics engineering school.
MPO Fenêtres is a local PVC windows company established in Alençon since 1970, is one of the first company in Alençon with around 170 employees (2009) and a turnover of 28 million euros in 2008. It is also the oldest French PVC windows company still in activity.
Education
Transport
Alençon is linked by the A28 autoroute (motorway/freeway) with the nearby cities of Le Mans to the south (Sarthe) and Rouen (Seine-Maritime) to the north.
The A88 autoroute links the A28 just north of Alençon to the coastal port of Caen.
A comprehensive town bus system operates from 7:00 to 19:00.
There is a comprehensive network of cycle paths.
Notable people
Anne d'Alençon (1492–1562), marquise of Montferrat
Marie-Catherine de Villedieu (1640–1683), novelist
Pierre Allix (1641–1717), Protestant pastor and author
Jean Castaing (1723–1805), printer, playwright
Léonard Bourdon (1754–1807), revolutionist
Jacques Hébert (1757–1794), editor of the extreme radical newspaper Le Père Duchesne during the French Revolution
Louis de Frotté (1766–1800), chouan general
Edme Castaing (1796–1824), doctor and murderer
Jacques-Julien Houtou de Labillardière (1755–1834), botanist
Juste Lisch (1828–1910), architect
Raoul Le Mouton de Boisdeffre (1839–1919), general
Éléonore-Aglaé-Marie Despierres (1843–1895), historian
Adolphe Gérard (1844–1900), American restaurateur
Adhémar Leclère (1853–1917), author
Thérèse de Lisieux (1873–1897), Roman Catholic nun and saint, and is one of only 33 Doctors of the Church
Auguste Poulet-Malassis (1825–1878), publisher and friend of Baudelaire
Marie-Azélie Guérin Martin (1831–1877), the mother of St. Thérèse of Lisieux who, along with her husband Louis Martin, is one of the few married couples ever to be beatified by the Catholic Church.
Daniel Balavoine (1952–1986), singer and songwriter
Louis Barillet (1880–1948), glass blower
André Couder (1897–1979), astronomer
Alain Lambert (born 1946), politician
Anne Consigny (born 1963), actress
Yoann (born 1971), graphic artist
Laurence Leboucher (born 1972), cyclist
Lorànt Deutsch (born 1975), actor and writer
Benoît Tréluyer (born 1976), car racer, two-time winner of the Le Mans 24 Hours
Jonathan Cochet (born 1976), car racer
Anthony Geslin (born 1980), cyclist
Orelsan (born 1982), rapper
Arnold Mvuemba (born 1985) footballer
Twin towns – sister cities
Alençon is twinned with:
Basingstoke and Deane, England, United Kingdom
Quakenbrück, Germany
Gallery
See also
Alençon lace
Communes of the Orne department
Gare d'Alençon
References
INSEE commune file
External links
Official website
Alençon Tourist Office
Shrine of Alençon: pilgrimage on the steps of St. Therese and her parents, the blessed Louis and Zelie Martin
Website about the life, writings, spirituality, and mission of St. Therese of the Child Jesus of the Holy Face; information about the life of her family in Alençon and about pilgrimages to Alençon
Communes of Orne
Prefectures in France
Orne communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20television%20stations%20in%20Kentucky
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List of television stations in Kentucky
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This is a list of broadcast television stations that are licensed in the U.S. state of Kentucky.
Full-power stations
VC refers to the station's PSIP virtual channel. RF refers to the station's physical RF channel.
Defunct full-power stations
Channel 19: WAZE-TV - The CW - Madisonville/Evansville IN (10/15/1983-3/24/2011)
Channel 21: WKLO-TV - Louisville (9/7/1953-4/20/1954)
Channel 34 (RF channel 19): WBKI-TV - The CW - Campbellsville (7/27/1983-10/31/2017)
Low-power broadcasting (LPTV) stations
VC refers to the station's PSIP virtual channel, if it has one. RF refers to the station's physical RF channel.
Translators
VC refers to the station's PSIP virtual channel, if it has one. RF refers to the station's physical RF channel.
See also
Kentucky media
List of newspapers in Kentucky
List of radio stations in Kentucky
Media of cities in Kentucky: Bowling Green, Lexington, Louisville
Bibliography
External links
Kentucky Broadcasters Association
Kentucky
Television stations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological%20horror
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Psychological horror
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Psychological horror is a subgenre of horror and psychological fiction with a particular focus on mental, emotional, and psychological states to frighten, disturb, or unsettle its audience. The subgenre frequently overlaps with the related subgenre of psychological thriller, and often uses mystery elements and characters with unstable, unreliable, or disturbed psychological states to enhance the suspense, drama, action, and paranoia of the setting and plot and to provide an overall unpleasant, unsettling, or distressing atmosphere.
Characteristics
Psychological horror usually aims to create discomfort or dread by exposing common or universal psychological and emotional vulnerabilities/fears and revealing the darker parts of the human psyche that most people may repress or deny. This idea is referred to in analytical psychology as the archetypal shadow characteristics: suspicion, distrust, self-doubt, and paranoia of others, themselves, and the world.
The genre sometimes seeks to challenge or confuse the audience's grasp of the narrative or plot by focusing on characters who are themselves unsure of or doubting their own perceptions of reality or questioning their own sanity. Characters' perceptions of their surroundings or situations may indeed be distorted or subject to delusions, outside manipulation or gaslighting by other characters; emotional disturbances or trauma; and even hallucinations or mental disorders. In many cases, and in a similar way as the overlapping genre of psychological thriller, psychological horror may deploy an unreliable narrator or imply that aspects of the story are being perceived inaccurately by a protagonist, thus confusing or unsettling the audience and setting up an ominous or disturbing overarching tone. In other cases, the narrator or protagonist may be reliable or ostensibly mentally stable but is placed in a situation involving another character or characters who are psychologically, mentally, or emotionally disturbed. Thus, elements of psychological horror focus on mental conflicts. These become important as the characters face perverse situations, sometimes involving the supernatural, immorality, murder, and conspiracies. While other horror media emphasize fantastical situations such as attacks by monsters, psychological horror tends to keep the monsters hidden and to involve situations more grounded in artistic realism.
Plot twists are an often-used device. Characters commonly face internal battles with subconscious desires such as romantic lust and the desire for petty revenge. In contrast, splatter fiction and monster movies often focuses on a bizarre, alien evil to which the average viewer cannot easily relate. However, at times, the psychological horror and splatter subgenres overlap, such as in the French horror film High Tension.
Novels
The novels The Golem written by Gustav Meyrink, The Silence of the Lambs written by Thomas Harris, Robert Bloch novels such as Psycho and American Gothic, Stephen King novels such as Carrie, Misery, The Girl Who Loved Tom Gordon, The Shining, and Koji Suzuki's novel Ring are some examples of psychological horror. Shirley Jackson's We Have Always Lived in the Castle is often viewed as one of the best examples of psychological horror in fiction.
Films
Psychological horror films generally differ from traditional horror films, where the source of the fear is typically something material, such as grotesque or horrifying creatures, monsters, serial killers, or aliens, as well as the splatter and slasher film genres, which derives its frightening effects from gore and graphic violence, in that tension in psychological horror films is more frequently built through atmosphere, eerie sounds and exploitation of the viewer's and the character's psychological fears. Psychological horror films sometimes frighten or unsettle by relying on the viewer's or character's own imagination or the anticipation of a threat rather than an actual threat or a material source of fear portrayed onscreen. However, some psychological horror films may in fact contain a material or overt threat or a physical source of fear, as well as scenes of graphic gore or violence, yet still rely or focus mainly on atmosphere and the psychological, mental, and emotional states of the characters and viewers to frighten or disturb. For instance, some psychological horror films may portray psychotic murderers and scenes of graphic violence while still maintaining an atmosphere that focuses on either the villain's, protagonist's, or audience's psychological, mental, or emotional status.
The Black Cat (1934) and Cat People (1942) have been cited as early psychological horror films. Roman Polanski directed two films which are considered quintessential psychological horror: Repulsion (1965) and Rosemary's Baby (1968). Stanley Kubrick's 1980 film The Shining, adapted from the aforementioned Stephen King novel, is another particularly well-known example of the genre. The Silence of the Lambs (1991) directed by Jonathan Demme, as well as the animated film Perfect Blue (1997) directed by Satoshi Kon, are both notable examples of psychological horror, as on the surface they incorporate elements of the thriller genre. Recent English-language films in the genre include Black Swan (2010), The Babadook (2014), It Follows (2015), Get Out (2017), Hereditary (2018), The House That Jack Built (2018), Midsommar (2019), The Lighthouse (2019), Saint Maud (2020) and Last Night in Soho (2021).
The Italian film genre known as giallo often employs elements of the psychological horror subgenre. The subgenre is also a staple in Asian countries. Japanese horror films, commonly referred to as "J-horror", have been noted to be generally of a psychological nature. Notable examples are Ring (1998) and the Ju-On series. Another influential category is the Korean horror films, commonly referred to as "K-horror". Notable examples are A Tale of Two Sisters (2003), Hansel and Gretel (2007), and Whispering Corridors (1998). A landmark film from the Philippines, Kisapmata (1981), is an example of psychological horror.
Video games
Psychological horror video games are a subgenre of horror video games. While such games may be based on any style of gameplay, they are generally more exploratory and "seek to instigate a sense of doubt about what might really be happening" in the player. Phantasmagoria (1995), D (1995), Corpse Party (1996) and Silent Hill (1999) are considered some of the first psychological horror games.
See also
Absurdism
Art horror
Cliffhanger
Cosmicism
Existentialism
Existential crisis
Existential nihilism
Horror-of-personality
Lovecraftian horror
Social thriller
Unreliable narrator
References
Bibliography
Film genres
Horror fiction
Horror genres
Horror
Thrillers
Video game genres
Psychological horror games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%20California%20Adventure
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Disney California Adventure
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Disney California Adventure Park, commonly referred to as California Adventure or by its acronym DCA, is a theme park located at the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California. It is owned and operated by The Walt Disney Company through its Parks, Experiences and Products division. The park is themed after the history and culture of California, which celebrates the adventure of the state through the use of various Disney, Pixar and Marvel Studios properties. The park opened on February 8, 2001 as Disney's California Adventure Park and is the second of two theme parks built at the Disneyland Resort complex, after Disneyland Park.
The concept of a theme park dedicated to California arose from a meeting of Disney executives in 1995, following the cancellation of WestCOT, a planned West Coast version of Walt Disney World's utopian EPCOT Center. Construction of the park began in June 1998 and was completed by early 2001. Disney initially projected high attendance rates at the new park; a series of preview openings held in January 2001 led to negative reviews, however, and after the park officially opened to the public on February 8, 2001, the company's attendance projections were never met. Disney spent the next several years incrementally adding new rides, shows, and attractions, and implementing other promotions aimed at boosting attendance. In 2007, Disney announced a major overhaul of the park consisting of new expansion as well as re-construction of existing areas of the park. Construction lasted for five years and was completed in stages, culminating with the opening of Buena Vista Street and Cars Land along with the re-dedication of the park in June 2012. The most recent addition to the park was the completion of Avengers Campus when the Disneyland Resort reopened in mid-2021, after being closed for over a year due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
According to the Themed Entertainment Association, the park hosted approximately 9.9 million guests in 2018, making it the 12th-most visited theme park in the world that year.
History
Concept and creation
The present-day site of Disney California Adventure was acquired by Walt Disney in the 1950s and functioned as the parking lot of Disneyland for over 40 years. After succeeding with the multi-park business model at Walt Disney World in Florida, the Disney company decided to turn Walt Disney's original theme park into a multi-park resort complex as well. Disneyland was boxed-in, however, because of the growth of Anaheim around the park; while the Walt Disney World property was 30,000 acres at the time, the Disneyland site was about 400. This consisted of the park itself, the 100-acre parking lot, and the newly acquired Disneyland Hotel and vacation property from the Wrather Corporation. In 1991, Disney announced plans to build WestCOT, a west coast version of what was then known as EPCOT Center, on the site of Disneyland's parking lot. The price tag of the proposed park was high and the company was facing financial and public relation problems with the newly opened Euro Disneyland (now Disneyland Paris). Plus, Disney president Frank Wells died in a helicopter crash in 1994. These issues led Disney to cancel WestCOT in 1995.
In the summer of 1995, Michael Eisner, Disney's CEO at the time, gathered company executives in Aspen, Colorado, to think of another idea for a second theme park in California. They broke down the Disneyland problem as follows: The majority of the people visiting Disneyland consisted primarily of California residents, locals, or those traveling from nearby states. Those were visiting from another state or another country, probably had Disneyland as one of the several attractions to do in California. Based on this, Disney decided it would instead build a park themed to California's history and culture. Disney's executives aimed to make California a theme park, to keep guests at the resort instead of going off-site. This would require less expensive hotels, a single parking garage, and very little additional property acquisition, with most of the park residing on the Disneyland parking lot. Then-Disneyland president Paul Pressler relied on merchandising and retail staff instead of Imagineers to design the park. As an adult-oriented park-like Epcot, dining, and shopping were the design focus. Construction of the park began on January 22, 1998. On Main Street, U.S.A., a Disney's California Adventure Preview Center opened in October 1998. The park's construction was accompanied by Downtown Disney and Disney's Grand Californian Hotel, in addition to renovations of the Disneyland Hotel and Disneyland Pacific Hotel.
Opening and initial criticism
The park was expected to draw large crowds when it opened on February 8, 2001. There were four districts with 22 shows and attractions and 15 restaurants.
On January 14, a Los Angeles Times article stated, "Senior Disney officials acknowledge that there will be days when California Adventure will have to turn patrons away, particularly in the first weeks after the park opens, during spring break and again in the summer." The attendance that year was substantially less than expected, however. This is suggested to have happened as a result of negative reviews from early visitors. For example, Disney had originally planned the park to be aimed at adults, rather than children, which became the basis of significant criticism.
The park opened to 5 million visitors in 2001 while its sister park Disneyland saw 12.3 million visitors during the same time frame. Low attendance caused Disney to lower ticket prices for California Adventure, slashing as much as $10 off the park's ticket prices. In its first year, the park averaged 5,000 to 9,000 visitors on weekdays and 10,000 to 15,000 on the weekends, despite having a capacity of 33,000. Visitor surveys reported that 20% of visitors to the park in its first year were satisfied with their experience. By October 2001, both Wolfgang Puck and Robert Mondavi had closed their high-profile restaurants in the park, citing low crowds, though Mondavi remained as a sponsor.
In the 2019 documentary series The Imagineering Story, then-Walt Disney Imagineering creative executive Kevin Rafferty described how he and fellow Imagineers felt about the original design of California Adventure:
Early changes and expansions
Two major criticisms of the park in its first year were the lack of attractions appealing to children and the lack of a nighttime show or parade to keep visitors from leaving at nightfall. Within the first year of operation, Disney's Electrical Parade and Who Wants to Be a Millionaire – Play It! were brought to the park, and several of its original rides and attractions were closed, including Superstar Limo and the stage show Disney's Steps in Time. During the 2001 holiday season, Disney's LuminAria was presented on Paradise Bay. In October 2002, the Flik's Fun Fair area opened, which added attractions for children, and in May 2004, The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror opened as another E ticket. The park regularly featured seasonal promotions such as concert series, food festivals, and promotions for other Walt Disney Company franchises including the X Games and ABC soap operas. Monsters, Inc. Mike & Sulley to the Rescue! opened in the former Superstar Limo building in January 2006.
Major redesign and expansion
By 2007, Disney began making plans for major updates to the park. CEO Bob Iger said, "Any time you do something mediocre with your brand, that's withdrawal. California Adventure was a brand withdrawal." Iger briefly considered combining California Adventure and Disneyland Park into one large park, but the price would have cost as much as completely remodeling California Adventure. On October 17, 2007, The Walt Disney Company announced a multi-year, $1.1 billion redesign and expansion plan for Disney's California Adventure Park (against its initial $600 million cost to build). Each district was reimagined to transform the park from a spoof of modern California culture to a romanticized, idealized version of the state, exploring specific time periods and historic settings. The project began in December 2007 and was completed in stages. Toy Story Midway Mania! opened on Paradise Pier in June 2008, in space formerly occupied by a store and restaurants. World of Color, nighttime water and lights show on Paradise Bay, opened in June 2010. The Little Mermaid: Ariel's Undersea Adventure opened on the site formerly occupied by the Golden Dreams theater in June 2011.
The most drastic changes to the park included a complete overhaul of the main entrance, Sunshine Plaza, and Paradise Pier and an expansion into the last of the parking area originally designated as future growth space for the park. The main entrance and Sunshine Plaza were turned from a "giant postcard" spoof of California into Buena Vista Street, a representation of Los Angeles as it appeared when Walt Disney moved there in the 1920s. The "CALIFORNIA" sign in front was removed and donated to Cal Expo in Sacramento. Paradise Pier was turned from a contemporary representation of California boardwalks into a representation of Victorian seaside amusement parks of the 1920s, and some of the area's off-the-shelf rides were either removed outright (Maliboomer) or re-themed to have more of a focus on Disney characters (Mickey's Fun Wheel, Goofy's Sky School, Silly Symphony Swings). Cars Land, an area that simulates Radiator Springs from Disney·Pixar's Cars film franchise, was added to the southeast portion of the park and features three rides, including the E ticket Radiator Springs Racers. Construction was completed in 2012 and the park was then re-dedicated on June 15, 2012. The park received a modified name, Disney California Adventure, and a new logo first put into use in June 2010.
The redesign and expansion of the park saw attendance rates increase dramatically. In 2012, Disney California Adventure reached a record high for the park of over 7 million visitors (a 23% increase from the year before), a number Disney had hoped the park would attain in its first year. The day of the park's rededication saw the park draw a record number of 43,000 visitors in one day. The night before the rededication, over 500 people camped outside of the park in order to be the first admitted in. Two days later, the park hit a new record of 45,000 visitors. Speaking on the attendance increase at Disney California Adventure, Jay Rasulo, Disney's chief financial officer, said: "We had a very uneven distribution where most people spent most of their time at Disneyland and Disney's California Adventure was empty. Now, half of the folks go to one, half of the folks go to the other. It's almost a dream come true."
COVID-19 pandemic closures, partial and full reopening
Disney California Adventure, along with Disneyland, was closed indefinitely starting on March 14, 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The park was scheduled to reopen alongside Disneyland on July 17, but due to rising cases in California, both parks remained closed. In October 2020, it was announced that Buena Vista Street would open as an expansion of the Downtown Disney District. This expansion would allow for additional shops and dining options for visitors to the Disneyland Resort, while the parks remained closed under State guidelines. In February 2021, Disney California Adventure announced there would be a limited-capacity ticketed event called “A Touch of Disney”, which would allow Disney fans to shop at stores and enjoy eateries around the park from March 18 through April 19, 2021. On March 5, 2021, it was announced by the California Department of Public Health that Disney California Adventure was allowed to reopen with capacity restrictions beginning April 1, 2021. Disney CEO Bob Chapek then announced the following week that the company planned on officially reopening the park in late April 2021. On March 17, 2021, Disney Parks, Experiences and Products announced that both Disney California Adventure and Disneyland would officially reopen on April 30, 2021 with limited capacity and social distancing/mask guidelines in effect. Mask policies were relaxed at the Disneyland Resort in the summer of 2021, but ultimately were reinstated for indoor shops and attractions in July in response to the Delta strain.
Areas
Disney California Adventure is divided into eight themed lands; Buena Vista Street, Pixar Pier, Paradise Gardens, Pacific Wharf, Grizzly Peak, Hollywood Land, Avengers Campus, and Cars Land.
Buena Vista Street
Buena Vista Street is the first area seen upon entering the park. It represents Los Angeles in the 1920s, when Walt Disney first arrived there. Similar to Main Street, U.S.A. in Disneyland Park, it has shops, restaurants, and a transportation system. Its central hub has entrances to Hollywood Land, Grizzly Peak, and Pacific Wharf. In the hub's center, also known as Carthay Circle, is a replica of the Carthay Circle Theater, where Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarves debuted in 1937. Guests can ride from Buena Vista Street to the end of Hollywood Land on the Red Car Trolley. It stops at Kingswell Camera Shop, and the Carthay Circle Restaurant. Other restaurants along the street include Mortimer's Market; Trolley Treats; Clarabelle's Hand Scooped Ice Cream; and Fiddler, Fifer & Practical Cafe. Main stores along the street include Oswald's, Five & Dime, Big Top Toys, Kingswell Camera Shop, and Elias & Co.
Pixar Pier
Pixar Pier is themed after many of the major films produced by Pixar Animation Studios, and is divided into four districts; Incredibles Park, Toy Story Boardwalk, Pixar Promenade, and Inside Out Headquarters. Its attractions include the Pixar Pal-A-Round, Incredicoaster, Jessie's Critter Carousel, Games of Pixar Pier, Toy Story Midway Mania, and the Inside Out Emotional Whirlwind. Its main stores are Knick's Knacks, Midway Mercantile, and Bing Bong's Sweet Stuff, and offers table-service dining at the Lamplight Lounge. It is connected to Paradise Gardens Park at both ends; its main entrance is via a bridge under a large Pixar Pier gateway.
Paradise Gardens
Paradise Gardens, the largest land in Disney California Adventure, is at the park's center, with direct entrances to Pixar Pier, Pacific Wharf and Grizzly Peak. The Paradise Gardens Park area, in front of The Little Mermaid, is a prominent place to watch the World of Color water show and for taking photos with Pixar Pier as a backdrop. Paradise Garden's five attractions include Goofy's Sky School, Silly Symphony Swings, Jumpin' Jellyfish, Golden Zephyr, and The Little Mermaid ~ Ariel's Undersea Adventure. The Paradise Gardens neighborhood also hosts many of the Resort's seasonal and cultural celebrations throughout the year. Some of these celebrations include the Dia de los Muertos celebration during the fall (with two shows, A Musical Celebration of Coco and Mariachi Divas), the Festival of the Holidays (with "Disney Viva Navidad Street Party" and "Mickey's Happy Holidays"), and the Lunar New Year Festival (with "Mulan's Lunar New Year Processional"). Most parades and cavalcades that run through the park begin in Paradise Gardens and travel north towards Buena Vista Street.
Pacific Wharf
Located between Pixar Pier and Avengers Campus, Pacific Wharf is themed to resemble the old waterfront of Monterey, California as a tribute to its fishing industry. The Bakery Tour and the Walt Disney Imagineering Blue Sky Cellar are its only attractions.
It is primarily an outdoor food court with the following restaurants:
Cocina Cucamonga Mexican Grill
Lucky Fortune Cookery Chinese Wok
Mendocino Terrace
Ghirardelli Soda Fountain and Chocolate Shop
Magic Key Terrace
Pacific Wharf Café (Boudin Bakery)
Pacific Wharf Distribution Co.
Rita's Baja Blenders
Sonoma Terrace
Wine Country Trattoria
Grizzly Peak
Grizzly Peak is themed around California's wilderness and national parks, with particular references to Yosemite and Redwood national parks. Its main attraction is Grizzly River Run, a Gold Rush-esque river rapids ride around the area's summit. Nearby is the Redwood Creek Challenge Trail, a playground area with elements from Disney's Brother Bear and Disney·Pixar's Up. It has an entrance exclusively accessible to guests of Disney's Grand Californian Hotel & Spa.
Grizzly Peak Airfield, formally known as Condor Flats, is a sub-land within Grizzly Peak, themed to an airfield in California's High Sierras in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The area's main attraction is Soarin' Around the World, which simulates a hang-glider tour of locations, landscapes and landmarks across six of the world's continents. The area also has the Smokejumpers Grill counter-service restaurant, a shop, and a decorative fire lookout tower.
Hollywood Land
Hollywood Land is inspired by the Golden Age of Hollywood in the 1930s. It includes attractions based on film, television, theater and a subsection called Hollywood Studios, which is designed to appear as an active studio backlot. Found within that subsection is the 3D film Mickey's PhilharMagic and the Monsters, Inc. Mike & Sulley to the Rescue! attraction, a dark ride based on the characters from Disney·Pixar's Monsters, Inc. The land is also home to the 2000-seat Hyperion Theater, which formerly presented Frozen – Live at the Hyperion. Between Monster's Inc. and Mickey's Philharmagic is Stage 17: Backlot Premiere Shop, a large store dedicated to carrying all Marvel merchandise.
Disney Junior – Live on Stage! opened on March 25, 2011 in the Disney Theater, and has featured stage productions such as Mickey Mouse Clubhouse, Sofia the First, Doc McStuffins, and Jake and the Never Land Pirates. Its final day of performance was April 9, 2017. It was replaced by Disney Junior Dance Party, which opened on May 26, 2017, and most recently featured Mickey and the Roadster Racers, Doc McStuffins, Vampirina, and The Lion Guard. Next door to Disney Theater is the Animation Building, which hosts Sorcerer's Workshop (a walk-through exhibit focused on basic animation and determining which Disney character matches your personality), Animation Academy (a workshop that teaches Guests how to draw popular Disney characters), Turtle Talk with Crush, and an Elsa & Anna Meet and Greet. Outside of the Animation Building and Disney Theater are the land's two main stores: Off the Page and Gone Hollywood.
The restroom facilities in the district are designed in the style of Frank Lloyd Wright's Storer House, located in the Hollywood Hills area of Los Angeles. The stamped concrete structure is typical of Wright's pioneering design.
Avengers Campus
Avengers Campus is inspired by the Marvel Cinematic Universe, featuring attractions based on characters originating from Marvel Comics and appearing in MCU media. The area is anchored around an Avengers campus located on the former restricted grounds of a Stark Industries and Strategic Scientific Reserve complex. Attractions and restaurants include Guardians of the Galaxy – Mission: Breakout!, Web Slingers: A Spider-Man Adventure, the Ancient Sanctum, and the Pym Test Kitchen. The area opened on June 4, 2021 on the former site of A Bug's Land, after its July 2020 opening was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Cars Land
Cars Land spans and contains three attractions. The largest attraction, Radiator Springs Racers, is a dark ride that utilizes the technology of Epcot's Test Track. Based on Pixar's Cars films, the ride begins with a scenic drive through the mountains, then enters a show building, where the vehicle finds its way into the town of Radiator Springs and gets a race briefing from Doc Hudson; the ride ends with an outdoor, side-by-side dueling race to the Comfy Caverns Motor Court. With a budget of an estimated US$200 million, it is the most expensive theme park ride ever built.
The other attractions at Cars Land are family attractions with smaller height requirements: Mater's Junkyard Jamboree and Luigi's Rollickin' Roadsters. Mater's Junkyard Jamboree opened with Cars Land in 2012. Luigi's Rollickin' Roadsters opened on March 7, 2016, and replaced Luigi's Flying Tires.
Cars Land is designed as a life-size model and near-exact replica of the town of Radiator Springs from the Cars films. The land includes several dining and shopping venues. The district serves as a connection between Pacific Wharf, Hollywood Land, and A Bug's Land. Construction began in July 2009 and opened to the public on June 15, 2012.
In September 2017, Cars Land received Halloween decorations during Halloween Time at the Disneyland Resort. Two Cars Land attractions, Luigi's Rollickin' Roadsters and Mater's Junkyard Jamboree, became Luigi's Honkin' Haul-O-Ween and Mater's Graveyard JamBOOree.
Characters
As with other Disney Parks, characters based on Disney properties roam around the themed areas of the park.
Following the COVID-19 reopening, up-close character meet and greets have yet to return. Nonetheless, character cavalcades began in Paradise Gardens, as Pixar characters from Disney·Pixar's The Incredibles and Toy Story roam through the land. Characters also began to meet and greet with Guests from a distance; including Goofy and Max from a balcony on Pacific Wharf, Judy Hopps and Nick Wilde from Disney's Zootopia outside of The Little Mermaid ~ Ariel's Undersea Adventure, Anna and Elsa from Disney's Frozen on Buena Vista Street, and the Avengers from the Marvel Cinematic Universe in Avengers Campus.
Former areas
A Bug's Land
A Bug's Land (stylized "a bug's land") was seen from the point of view of Flik, the inventor ant from the Disney·Pixar film A Bug's Life, where oversized human items were scattered throughout. It featured Flik's Fun Fair (a collection of themed, family and child-friendly attractions such as Flik's Flyers, Francis' Ladybug Boogie, Tuck & Roll's Drive 'em Buggies, Heimlich's Chew Chew Train, and Dot's Puddle Park). It opened as the park's first expansion in 2002 to expand the park's family-friendly attractions. The land was built around the existing attraction It's Tough to Be a Bug!, a 3D film based on A Bug's Life, which opened with the park in 2001.
It's Tough to Be a Bug! closed on March 19, 2018. The rest of A Bug's Land closed on September 4, 2018 to make way for the Avengers Campus. When A Bug's Land closed in 2018, Flik's Flyers was re-themed into Inside Out Emotional Whirlwind and relocated to Pixar Pier.
Alcohol policy
Unlike Disneyland Park (with the exception of Club 33 in New Orleans Square and Oga's Cantina in Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge), Disney California Adventure serves beer, wine and cocktails throughout its restaurants, stands and food kiosks. The park also hosts the Disney California Adventure Food & Wine Festival, an annual event featuring a number of themed kiosks, each featuring food and beverages from a particular aspect of California cuisine.
Live entertainment
Live performances
Formerly, at the Hyperion Theater, guests were able to see Frozen – Live at the Hyperion, an hour-long musical version of the film of the same name. The show used projections and special effects to create the fictional kingdom of Arendelle with Anna, Elsa, Olaf and Kristoff. Frozen – Live at the Hyperion at the Hyperion Theater opened to the public on May 27, 2016 and was cancelled following the Park's reopening in April 2021.
Five and Dime is a traveling street show featuring the musical talents of Dime and her five bandmates. They can be seen driving through Hollywood Land in their 1920s-style car. Following the reopening of Disney California Adventure, the performance has now shifted to a stage in front of the Carthay Circle fountain
Red Car Newsboys is Disney California Adventure's lively street show featuring singing, dancing newsboys, and a surprise character visit. The show is currently on hiatus due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
World of Color is nighttime water and light spectacular that transforms Paradise Bay into a water canvas. The 22-minute water show features scenes from popular Disney and Pixar films and can be used with the Made with Magic ears and accessories. During the holiday season, a holiday version of the show is offered. The show is currently on hiatus due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Paint the Night Parade came to Disney California Adventure after being in Disneyland. The parade was cancelled following the Park's reopening in April 2021.
Character experiences
Anna and Elsa's Royal Welcome is one of the more popular character meet-and-greets in the park. The two sisters of Frozen, plus Olaf, and occasionally Kristoff, meet guests daily at Disney Animation. The meet and greet has not yet returned due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) characters Captain America, Spider-Man, Captain Marvel, and Black Panther currently meet guests daily in Avengers Campus. Additionally, Thor, Loki, Black Widow, Hawkeye, and Doctor Strange occasionally meet guests in Avengers Campus, either at designated meet locations or as roaming encounters. Groot (Marvel Cinematic Universe) also meets guests daily in front of the Guardians of the Galaxy – Mission: Breakout! attraction and sometimes joins Star-Lord and Gamora during the Guardians of the Galaxy - Awesome Dance-Off! daily street show performances.
Buzz Lightyear, Woody, Sulley, Mr. Incredible, Elastigirl, and other Pixar characters meet guests at various locations within Pixar Pier.
The Pixar Pals cavalcade began following the reopening of the Park in summer 2021. Throughout the day, a green army man drives a jeep full of Andy's toys, and is followed by characters from various Pixar films, including Woody, Jessie, Bo Peep, Mr. Incredible, Elastigirl, and Frozone.
Annual events
The Disney California Adventure Food & Wine Festival, inaugurated in 2006, suspended in 2011 and revived in 2016 after a five-year hiatus, is an annual festival celebrating the cuisine, wine, and beer of California, taking place during spring. It ended abruptly after two weeks in 2020 and was canceled for 2021, both as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic. The festival is scheduled to return for the 2022 spring season, running from March 4, 2022 to April 26, 2022.
The Lunar New Year Festival (originally begun as the Happy Lunar New Year Celebration at Disneyland) is a festival first held at Disney California Adventure in 2013. The festival celebrates the Chinese, Vietnamese and Korean cultures and includes Asian-inspired foods and a processional, taking place in January and/or February. The event was canceled for 2021 due to the closure of the park as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic but returned for 2022, scheduled to occur from January 21, 2022 to February 13, 2022.
Disney Festival of Holidays is a festival inspired by cultural traditions, started in 2016 and taking place in winter. The festival celebrates traditions from holidays including Christmas, Navidad, Hanukkah, Diwali, Kwanzaa and Three Kings Day. The main attraction is the Festive Foods Marketplace, offering multicultural and diverse cuisine at participating kiosks. The event returned for its second year during the 2017 holiday season, and added new entertainment and dining options. The event did not take place for the 2020 winter season due to the closure of the park as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. The 2021-22 winter season festival ran from November 12, 2021 to January 9, 2022 with live entertainment, a Santa meet and greet at the Redwood Creek Challenge Trail and holiday-themed overlays for the Luigi's Rollickin' Roadsters and Mater's Junkyard Jamboree attractions in Cars Land.
Oogie Boogie Bash is a separately ticketed after hours event begun in 2019 taking place on selected nights in September and October. The park closes several hours early and attendees are treated to special Halloween-themed activities, such as a music and light projection show entitled "Villainous!", an overlay of the Redwood Challenge Creek Trail area called Villains Grove, the DescenDANCE party and Mickey's Trick & Treat Show, the Frightfully Fun Parade, character meet and greets and Disney villain-themed trick or treat candy stations. Event-exclusive food items are available for purchase. Oogie Boogie Bash was canceled for the 2020 Halloween season as a result of the closure of the park due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It returned in fall 2021, featuring three new villain treat trails (including Sid from Disney·Pixar's Toy Story, Cruella from Walt Disney Studios's Cruella (2021), and Agatha Harkness from Marvel Studios's WandaVision).
Attendance
Notes
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the park was only open in 2020 from the beginning of the year through March 14
Due to the worldwide impacts on park attendance due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2020 ranking is only among the parks that were in the top 25 for attendance in 2019
See also
List of Disney theme park attractions
List of Disney attractions that were never built
Similar Disney parks
Disney's Hollywood Studios
Walt Disney Studios Park
Tokyo DisneySea
Epcot
Disney's Animal Kingdom
California Adventure rides
List of Disney California Adventure attractions
List of former Disney California Adventure attractions
Rail transport in Walt Disney Parks and Resorts
List of amusement parks
References
External links
2001 establishments in California
Amusement parks in California
Hollywood history and culture
California culture
Amusement parks opened in 2001
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soarin%27
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Soarin'
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Soarin', also known as Soarin' Around the World, Soaring Over the Horizon and Soaring: Fantastic Flight, is a flight motion simulator attraction at Disney California Adventure, Epcot, Shanghai Disneyland, and Tokyo DisneySea. It employs a mechanical lift system, a
projected presentation on an concave 180-degree dome screen, and artificial scents and wind to simulate a hang gliding flight over locations in six of the world's continents. Many consider it the first flying theater.
The attraction's first iteration, Soarin Over California, was an opening-day attraction at Disney California Adventure on February 8, 2001. It took guests over several locations in California and included a pre-show on the history of California's aviation industry. It was also installed at Epcot in Walt Disney World as Soarin in 2005.
The current global version of the ride debuted at Shanghai Disneyland Park as Soaring Over the Horizon on June 16, 2016. The American versions were also replaced with the new film as Soarin Around the World on June 17. A fourth attraction, Soaring: Fantastic Flight, opened at Tokyo DisneySea on July 23, 2019. The original Soarin' Over California returned to Disney California Adventure for a limited engagement in June 2019, and its popularity led Disney to extend the run through the end of August of that year. Another limited run began February 28, 2020 as part of the park's Food & Wine Festival, but was cut short when the resort closed on March 13 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Ride design
Soarin was first conceptualized in 1996 as Ultra Flight, a name that can still be seen on the tower consoles of the California Adventure attraction. It was to feature an OMNIMAX screen with an inverted track, allowing guests to fly over California's landmarks. It was to have three load levels, with a system operating on a horizontal cable, much like a dry cleaner's rack. The plan was abandoned when it was determined that the design's construction and labor costs would be prohibitive. It seemed that Soarin wouldn't become a reality until engineer Mark Sumner developed a different idea for the ride vehicles, using an Erector Set and string to create a working model. The new design allowed Disney to efficiently load guests on one level instead of three, significantly cutting its building costs.
Each ride vehicle consists of three rows of seats under a wing-like canopy, with a capacity of 87 guests. After guests have been safely restrained in the vehicle with standard lap belts, the canopy descends slightly and a cantilever system lifts the chairs forward and into the air with the guests' feet dangling freely. The vehicle is lifted forward so that guests look into a large, concave movie screen onto which aerial views are projected. The original film's scenes were shot at an IMAX HD frame rate of 48 frames per second, twice the conventional rate of regular films. The vehicle is moved forward toward the center of the dome so guests can see only the projected images and experience the sensation of flight. The ride structure contains about one million pounds (454,000 kg) of steel; 37 tons (33.5 metric tonnes) are lifted during each ride cycle.
To enhance the illusion, subtle vertical movements of the seats are synchronized to the film. Sensations of horizontal motion are created with a combination of vertical carriage movement and turning the image on the screen. Scents complementing the scenes are also injected into the air streams blowing on riders. In the updated show, scents include rose blossoms in the Taj Mahal scene, grass in the Africa scene, and a sea breeze in the South Pacific scene.
Versions
Disney California Adventure
Soarin Around the World is in the Grizzly Peak Airfield section of Disney California Adventure at the Disneyland Resort. One of the resort's most popular attractions, it utilizes the park's FastPass system, allowing guests to reserve specific ride times to avoid long queues.
While in line, guests pass the Wings of Fame, an homage to California's aviation history, including profiles of the P-51 Mustang, SR-71 Blackbird, and Bell X-1. There is also a section dedicated to aviators such as John J. Montgomery, Amelia Earhart, Jimmy Doolittle, Charles Lindbergh, Jack Northrop, the Wright brothers, Howard Hughes, Jacqueline Cochran, Kelly Johnson, Paul MacCready, and Chuck Yeager. Inspirational music from a variety of aviation-related films is played in the queue areas, including Patton, MacArthur, Air Force One, The Blue Max, Explorers (all by Jerry Goldsmith), The American President (by Marc Shaiman), DragonHeart, Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story, Angels in the Outfield (1994) (both by Randy Edelman), The Last Starfighter (by Craig Safan), Apollo 13, and The Rocketeer (both by James Horner), Always (by John Williams) and the HBO miniseries Band of Brothers (by Michael Kamen). The Air Force Song and "Jupiter" from Gustav Holst's orchestral suite The Planets are also heard, based on their use in The Right Stuff.
Before entering the theater area, guests are placed in one of three preshow areas, called Alpha Gate, Bravo Gate, and Charlie Gate (named for the first three letters of the NATO phonetic alphabet). Just before boarding, guests see a pre-boarding video hosted by their chief flight attendant, Patrick Warburton.
The attraction opened with the park in 2001 as Soarin Over California in what was then the park's Condor Flats area. In early 2015, it closed for refurbishment as the surrounding area was transformed into Grizzly Peak Airfield. It reopened on May 15, 2015, with new exterior theming and updates to its screen and projection system. It now utilizes a laser illuminated digital projection array, replacing its original IMAX systems. Several exterior changes include the replacement of the mock-up RS-25 rocket engine with a fire lookout tower.
From January to March 2016, the attraction intermittently operated as Soarin Over California to prepare for the introduction of the Soarin Around the World ride film. The original film was shown until June 16, when the attraction was closed to prepare for the new film's debut on June 17.
On May 23, 2019, Disney announced that Soarin Over California would temporarily return to the park for the month of June, following the opening of Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge at Disneyland Park on May 31. On June 21, they announced that the limited return had been extended to August 31, 2019 due to popular demand.
On February 28, 2020, the California version of the ride returned to California Adventure for the Disney California Adventure Food & Wine Festival. The limited engagement was scheduled to run through April 21, but ended prematurely when the resort began its extended closure due to the COVID-19 pandemic on March 13.
Epcot
The attraction was duplicated, simply as Soarin, and officially opened inside "The Land" pavilion at Epcot in Walt Disney World on May 5, 2005, along with Lights, Motors, Action!: Extreme Stunt Show at Disney's Hollywood Studios as part of the Happiest Celebration on Earth festival. Unlike the Disney California Adventure version, the show had guests taking flights to California. The concept was reinforced with theming of guests being loaded into "gates", with airport-themed spiels referring to "Flight 5505", an homage to the attraction's opening day. Cast members wear costumes resembling flight attendant uniforms, whereas the California version wear airfield crew uniforms.
The Epcot queue originally had pictures of natural wonders from around the world, not just California. It currently utilizes a new infrared technology that allows guests to participate in interactive games. In 2009, this interactive technology appeared in the Magic Kingdom as part of a seven-month overhaul of Space Mountain.
The attraction closed for refurbishment on January 4, 2016, and was originally slated to reopen on June 17, with a third theater to coincide with the release of the new Soarin Around the World film. The ride reopened with the original film on May 27, and the change to the new film occurred on June 17, 2016.
Shanghai Disneyland Park
The attraction was retooled as Soaring Over the Horizon for Shanghai Disneyland Park. It was not part of the park's original plan, but was added to it after Walt Disney Imagineering began developing similar attractions for the U.S. parks. Located in the park's Adventure Isle area, it opened with the park on June 16, 2016.
Embedded in the Adventure Isle setting, the attraction is presented as an ancient observatory and temple to the Arbori tribe's Condor god. The preshow and safety spiel are hosted by a shaman of the tribe who grants guests the ability of flight, but has trouble controlling her own shapeshifting abilities.
Tokyo DisneySea
On April 27, 2016, Tokyo Disney Resort announced a number of coming attractions for Tokyo Disneyland and Tokyo DisneySea parks, including a proposed version of Soarin (titled Soaring: Fantastic Flight) to be in the Mediterranean Harbor section of Tokyo DisneySea. The announcement said this version would have a different theme, with ride vehicles designed as Renaissance-era Dream Flyers created by aviatrix and Society of Explorers and Adventurers member Camellia Falco. It opened on July 23, 2019.
In this version of the attraction, rather than an aviation terminal, it is set in the Museum of Fantastic Flight, which is hosting a retrospective on the life of Camellia Falco. Her spirit takes guests to see some of her Dream Flyer gliders, and invites them on a flight of fantasy around the world. (Falco's name was first seen by guests at Disneyland's Tropical Hideaway restaurant as one of the names on a series of oars belonging to members of the Society.)
Two other differences can be seen in this version of the film: The Paris scene is replaced with Tokyo at sunset, with Mount Fuji in the background; and the finale is a flight over Tokyo DisneySea.
Ride films
Soarin Over California
The original ride film, which lasts four minutes and 51 seconds, takes guests on a simulated hang-glider tour of California. Appropriate scents (citrus, pine, sagebrush, ocean mist) fill the air as the ride vehicles move gently to simulate the sensations of flight. In addition to the state's various landscapes, it also highlights its diverse recreation, including snow skiing, river rafting, kayaking, golf, horseback riding, hot air ballooning, surfing, and of course, hang gliding. Its locations are:
Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco
Redwood Creek in Humboldt County
Napa Valley
Monterey Bay Sanctuary
Lake Tahoe
Yosemite Falls and Half Dome in Yosemite National Park
PGA West Palmer Course in La Quinta (credited in the queue as Palm Springs)
Valencia orange groves over unincorporated Ventura County (credited as Camarillo)
Anza-Borrego Desert State Park
USS John C. Stennis (CVN-74) at Naval Air Station North Island in San Diego
Malibu Beach
Downtown Los Angeles
Disneyland Resort in Anaheim
The original Soarin Over California ride film at both Disney California Adventure and Epcot has an orchestral score by Jerry Goldsmith, who is said to have come down from his first ride in tears. In addition to finding it visually beautiful and magical, he said that his father was a pilot who loved all things Californian. "I'd do anything to be part of this project," Goldsmith said. "I'd even score the film for free." His soundtrack plays during the entire attraction, starting with a crescendo in the low strings while the screen is still dark. Numerous variations of a serene theme for horn and strings are heard, and several statements of a fanfare accompanies the grandest vistas. The original ride score was included on Disneyland Resort and Walt Disney World official albums, including Walt Disney Records The Legacy Collection: Disneyland. It continues to be heard as ambient music in the Disneyland Resort Esplanade and Epcot's entrance plaza.
Soaring Over the Horizon, Soarin Around the World, and Soaring: Fantastic Flight
An updated version of the Soarin attraction debuted at the Adventure Isle section of Shanghai Disneyland Park as Soaring Over the Horizon on June 16, 2016. On August 15, 2015 at the D23 Expo, it was announced that the attractions at Epcot and Disney California Adventure would debut versions of the new Soaring Over the Horizon ride film, titled Soarin Around the World, featuring locations, landscapes and landmarks across six continents. Unlike the original film, the updated version heavily utilizes computer generated imagery., including animated transitions between scenes, such as close encounters with a seaplane, a kite, and an eagle. The updated attractions opened on June 17, 2016 at Disney California Adventure and Epcot, along with a third theater for the latter location. The film's locations are:
Matterhorn in Switzerland and Italy
Isfjord, Greenland
Sydney Harbour in Sydney, Australia
Neuschwanstein Castle in Bavaria, Germany
Kilimanjaro National Park and Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania
The Great Wall of China in China
The Great Pyramids in Egypt
Taj Mahal in Uttar Pradesh, India
West and East Mitten Buttes in Monument Valley, Arizona, United States
Lau Islands, Fiji
Iguazu Falls in Brazil and Argentina
Eiffel Tower in Paris, France (Shanghai Disneyland version, Disney California Adventure version, Epcot version); Tokyo Tower in Tokyo (Tokyo DisneySea version)
Shanghai Disneyland, Shanghai, China (Shanghai Disneyland version); Disneyland, California, United States (Disney California Adventure version); Epcot, Florida, United States (Epcot version); Tokyo DisneySea, Chiba (Tokyo DisneySea version)
Soarin Around the World and Soaring Over the Horizon received a new score by Bruce Broughton, heavily based on Goldsmith's original score, and performed by the London Studio Orchestra.
See also
List of Disney California Adventure attractions
List of Epcot attractions
References
- Mechanism to lift riders into dome and simulate flight.
- System to project into dome while maintaining illusion of being at the same point of view as the camera.
External links
Disneyland Resort
Walt Disney World Resort - Soarin'
Shanghai Disneyland - Soaring Over the Horizon
Tokyo DisneySea - Soaring: Fantastic Flight
American films
Amusement rides introduced in 2001
Amusement rides introduced in 2005
Amusement rides introduced in 2016
Amusement rides introduced in 2019
Amusement rides manufactured by Dynamic Structures
Grizzly Peak (Disney California Adventure)
Disney California Adventure
Epcot
Films set in Argentina
Films set in Bavaria
Films set in California
Films set in China
Films set in Egypt
Films set in Fiji
Films set in Florida
Films set in Greenland
Films set in Paris
Films set in Shanghai
Films set in Switzerland
Films set in Sydney
Films set in Tanzania
Films set in Utah
Films set in Uttar Pradesh
Films shot in Argentina
Films shot in Bavaria
Films shot in California
Films shot in China
Films shot in Egypt
Films shot in Fiji
Films shot in Florida
Films shot in Greenland
Films shot in Paris
Films shot in Shanghai
Films shot in Switzerland
Films shot in Sydney
Films shot in Tanzania
Films shot in Utah
Films shot in Uttar Pradesh
Future World (Epcot)
World Nature
IMAX short films
Shanghai Disneyland
Adventureland (Disney)
Tokyo DisneySea
Mediterranean Harbor (Tokyo DisneySea)
Simulator rides
Walt Disney Parks and Resorts attractions
Walt Disney Parks and Resorts films
Films scored by Jerry Goldsmith
Films scored by Bruce Broughton
Films shot in Tokyo
Films set in Tokyo
Condor Flats
Aviation attractions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disneyland%20Resort
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Disneyland Resort
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The Disneyland Resort, commonly known as Disneyland, is an entertainment resort in Anaheim, California. It is owned and operated by The Walt Disney Company through its Parks, Experiences and Products division and is home to two theme parks (Disneyland Park and Disney California Adventure), three hotels, and a shopping, dining, and entertainment district known as Downtown Disney.
The resort was developed by Walt Disney in the 1950s. When it opened to guests on July 17, 1955, the property consisted of Disneyland, its 100-acre parking lot (which had 15,167 spaces), and the Disneyland Hotel, owned and operated by Disney's business partner Jack Wrather. After the success with the multi-park, multi-hotel business model at Walt Disney World in Lake Buena Vista, Florida, Disney acquired large parcels of land adjacent to Disneyland to apply the same business model in Anaheim.
During the expansion, the property was named the Disneyland Resort to encompass the entire complex, while the original theme park was named Disneyland Park. The company purchased the Disneyland Hotel from the Wrather Company and the Pan Pacific Hotel from the Tokyu Group. The Pan Pacific Hotel became Disney's Paradise Pier Hotel in 2000. In 2001 the property saw the addition of Disney's Grand Californian Hotel & Spa, a second theme park, named Disney California Adventure, and the Downtown Disney shopping, dining, and entertainment district.
History of Disneyland
Concept and construction
Walt Disney's early concepts for an amusement park called for a "Mickey Mouse Park" located adjacent to the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank (presently the site of the West Coast headquarters of ABC). As new ideas emerged, Walt and his brother Roy realized that the Burbank location would be too small for the project, and hired a consultant from Stanford Research Institute to provide them with information on locations and economic feasibility. The consultant recommended a remote location in Anaheim, adjacent to the then-under-construction Santa Ana Freeway. The consultant correctly predicted that the locationcovered by orange groves at the timewould become the population center of Southern California. Since the location was far from Southern California population centers in the 1950s, Walt Disney wanted to build a hotel so that Disneyland visitors traveling long distances could stay overnight. However, the park had depleted his financial resources, so he negotiated a deal with Hollywood producer Jack Wrather in which he would build and operate a hotel called the Disneyland Hotel across the street from Disneyland.
1955–1998: one park, one hotel
Disneyland opened on July 17, 1955, with a televised press preview event on ABC. Despite the disastrous event, later dubbed "Black Sunday", during which several rides broke down and other mishaps occurred, Disneyland became a huge success in its first year of operation. The hotel, which opened three months after the park, enjoyed similar success. Walt Disney wanted to build more facilities for Disneyland visitors to stay in Anaheim, but since his financial resources were drained, entrepreneurs established their own independent hotels in the area surrounding the park and hotel to capitalize on Disneyland's success.
To Walt Disney's dismay, the city of Anaheim was lax in restricting their construction, eager for the tax revenue generated by more hotels in the city. The area surrounding Disneyland became suffused with the kind of tacky atmosphere of colorful lights, flashy neon signs, and then-popular Googie architecture which he had wanted to avoid (and which years earlier had caused the city of Burbank to deny his initial request to build his project in Burbank). The Anaheim Convention Center was built across the street from Disneyland's original parking lot, and residences were constructed in the area as part of the city's growth in the late 20th century. Eventually, Disneyland was "boxed in", a factor which would later lead Walt Disney to acquire a significantly larger parcel of land for the construction of Walt Disney World. The Walt Disney Company gradually acquired the land west of the park, notably the Disneyland Hotel in 1989 following Jack Wrather's death in 1984, the Pan Pacific Hotel (now Disney's Paradise Pier Hotel) in 1995, and several properties north of the Disneyland Hotel in the mid to late 1990s.
1998–2001: planning an expansion
After Walt's and Roy's deaths in 1966 and 1971, respectively, the Walt Disney Company would go on to achieve success with the multi-park, multi-hotel resort complex business model of Walt Disney World in Florida, which opened in 1971. In the 1990s, Disney decided to turn Disneyland into a similar multi-park, multi-hotel resort destination. In 1991, Disney announced plans to build WestCOT, a theme park based on Walt Disney World's EPCOT Center, on the site of the original Disneyland parking lot. Its estimated cost was US$3 billion, largely due to the cost of land that Disney would need to acquire. With the new Euro Disney Resort, which opened in 1992, becoming a financial and public relations albatross for the company, Disney was unable to finance the project, and cancelled WestCOT in 1995. That summer, Disney executives gathered in Aspen, Colorado for a 3-day retreat, where they came up with the idea for a California-themed park, dubbed Disney's California Adventure Park, to be built on the same site slated for WestCOT. $1.4 billion was budgeted to build the park, a retail district, and hotels.
2001–present: Disneyland Resort complex
In January 2015, Tom Staggs, Disney Parks chair, and Steve Davison, VP of Park Entertainment, announced upcoming changes to the park to celebrate the park's 60th anniversary. The changes began on May 22, 2015, and ran for sixteen months. The updates included an updated World of Color water show, Paint the Night parade, and a new fireworks show titled Disneyland Forever. Disney California Adventure also received a makeover, with Condor Flats remade into Grizzly Peak Airfield and Soarin' Over California equipped with a new laser projection system. Peter Pan's Flight reopened on July 1.
In October 2017, Disney announced a new Pixar Pals parking structure for the resort, which includes a 6,500-space parking structure, and a new transportation hub, which opened in July 2019. The parking structure opened in June 2019 and is now used daily.
In August 2015, it was announced that Disneyland Park would receive a 14-acre Star Wars-themed land scheduled to open in 2019. It opened on May 31, 2019. Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge is home of two attractions, Millennium Falcon – Smugglers Run, and Star Wars: Rise of the Resistance.
In March 2018, it was announced that A Bug's Land would close in September 2018. It was replaced by Avengers Campus which was set to open July 18, 2020, but was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic and opened on June 4, 2021.
In January 2021, officials announced that the resort will be the first "super" COVID-19 vaccination site in Orange County, California. As one of several "super POD" (Point-of-Dispensing) locations, it is expected that thousands of residents will be able to be vaccinated against COVID-19 each day.
Future expansion and proposed DisneylandForward
Disney announced plans to build a fourth hotel at the resort in 2016, slated for an opening in 2021. In August 2018, the hotel was placed on hold indefinitely because of a dispute with the city of Anaheim, which concerned a tax rebate that would have subsidized the hotel's construction. Later, the hotel was cancelled as Disney and Anaheim could not come to an agreement on the tax rebate.
In April 2019, Disneyland announced that Mickey & Minnie's Runaway Railway would be coming to Disneyland in 2023. The attraction will go behind Mickey's Toontown in a former backstage area.
On March of 2021, the Walt Disney Company announced a new project for the Anaheim, California resort called Disneyland Forward. This proposal is designed to change the city of Anaheim's zoning rules so that Disney can build more theme park space for both Disneyland and Disney California Adventure. Proposals have included building more space where Disney's Paradise Pier hotel and the surrounding parking lots on the west-side of the resort currently reside. Rumors have surfaced that a new version of a mixed-use Disney Springs would be built near the Toy Story parking lot.
Location
The Disneyland Resort is located several miles south of downtown Anaheim, in an area branded by the city as the Anaheim Resort near the border of neighboring Garden Grove. The resort is generally bounded by Harbor Boulevard to the east, Katella Avenue to the south, Walnut Street to the west and Ball Road to the north. Interstate 5 borders the resort at an angle on the northeastern corner.
Not all land bordered by these streets is part of the Disneyland Resort, particularly near the intersection of Harbor Boulevard and Katella Avenue, and along Ball Road between Disneyland Drive and Walnut Street. Disneyland Drive cuts through the resort on a north–south route and provides access to the Mickey & Friends Parking Structure, Downtown Disney, and the three hotels. Magic Way connects Walnut Street to Disneyland Drive just south of the Mickey & Friends Parking Structure and provides access to the parking structure, Disneyland Hotel, and Downtown Disney.
Special offramps from Interstate 5 combined with a reversible flyover over the intersection of Ball Road and Disneyland Drive permit access into and out of the Mickey & Friends parking garage during peak morning and evening traffic times. The official address of the resort is 1313 South Harbor Boulevard; the address number is a Hidden Mickey.
Attractions
Parks
Disneyland Park, the original theme park built by Walt Disney, which opened on July 17, 1955.
Disney California Adventure Park, a theme park based on the history and culture of California, which opened on February 8, 2001.
Shopping, Dining, and Entertainment
Downtown Disney, an outdoor retail, dining, and entertainment district located between the entrance promenade of the Disneyland Resort theme parks and the Disneyland Hotel.
Hotels
Disneyland Hotel, the resort’s original hotel built by Jack Wrather which opened on October 5, 1955, and was purchased by Disney in 1988.
Disney's Paradise Pier Hotel, a hotel themed after the section of Disney California Adventure it overlooks. Formerly operated by the Tokyu Group (opening in 1984 under the name Emerald of Anaheim), the hotel was purchased by Disney in December 1995, for a reported US$36 million, and renamed the Disneyland Pacific Hotel. As part of the 1998-2001 expansion of the resort, it was re-branded as Disney's Paradise Pier Hotel. The lobby and convention/banquet facilities have undergone several renovations since the re-branding, most notably in 2004 and 2005.
Disney's Grand Californian Hotel & Spa, based on the Craftsman style of architecture of the early 1900s, which opened on January 2, 2001.
Attendance
The 2019 issue of "TEA/AECOM 2018 Theme Index and Museum Index: The Global Attractions Attendance Report" reported the following attendance estimates for 2018 compiled by the Themed Entertainment Association:
Disneyland: 18,666,000 visits (No. 2 worldwide/in the US, up 2% from 2017)
Disney's California Adventure: 9,861,000 visits (No. 11 worldwide/No. 7 in the US, up 3% from 2017)
Ticket prices
Approximately 60,000 people visited the park on Disneyland's opening day, July 17, 1955, when park admission was priced at $1 for adults and $0.5 for children. This did not include access to rides and other individual attractions; attraction tickets could be purchased separately for $0.1 to $0.35. Single attraction tickets were permanently eliminated in June 1982; access to all the park's attractions was henceforth included in the price of park admission tickets.
Admission prices have greatly increased since the gates first opened, due in part to inflation, the continuing construction and renovation of attractions, and the addition of a second theme park, Disney California Adventure. one-day "Park Hopper" tickets, allowing entry to both Disneyland Park and Disney California Adventure, are priced between $154 (on "Value" days) & $199 (on "Peak" days) for adults, and between $148 ("Value") & $191 ("Peak") for children. Visitors can also purchase one-park tickets and multi-day tickets.
In addition to daily tickets, in 1984 the Premium Annual Passport was introduced to the public. The Premium Annual Passport granted daily entry for a year at a time for $65 for adults and $49 for children. There were five different types of Annual Passports available for purchase, which are the Disney Signature Plus Passport ($1,449), the Disney Signature Passport ($1,199), the Disney Deluxe Passport ($829), the Disney Flex Passport ($649), and the Disney Southern California Select Passport ($399).
On January 14, 2021, Disneyland announced that they would be canceling the annual passport program. Disneyland Resort president Ken Potrock stated, "Due to the continued uncertainty of the pandemic and limitations around the reopening of our California theme parks, we will be issuing appropriate refunds for eligible Disneyland resort Annual Passports and sunsetting the current program." A replacement program was announced on August 3, 2021 titled "Magic Keys." There are four different tiers of Magic Keys available: Dream Key ($1,339), Believe Key ($949), Enchant Key ($649), and Imagine Key ($399).
Management
Executives
The president of Disneyland Resort is Ken Potrock. Potrock reports to Josh D'Amaro, Chairman of Parks, Experiences and Consumer Products.
Current management
President, Disneyland Resort – Ken Potrock
Senior Vice President, Experience Development & Integration Disneyland Resort – Mary Niven
Vice President, Disneyland Park – Kris Thieler
Vice President, Disney California Adventure Park & Downtown Disney District – Patrick Finnegan
Vice President, Disneyland Resort Hotels & Aulani, a Disney Resort & Spa – Elliot Mills
Past management:
President, Disneyland Resort – Rebecca Campbell (2019–2020)
President, Disneyland Resort – Josh D'Amaro (2018–2019)
President, Disneyland Resort – Michael Colglazier (2013–2018)
President, Disneyland Resort – George Kalogridis (2009–2013)
President, Disneyland Resort – Ed Grier (2006–2009)
President, Disneyland Resort – Matt Ouimet (2003–2006)
President, Disneyland Resort – Cynthia Harriss (1999–2003)
President, Disneyland Resort – Paul Pressler (1994–1999; Chairman of Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, 1999–2002)
President, Disneyland Resort – Jack Lindquist (1990–1994)
Former Vice President, Downtown Disney and Disneyland Resort Hotels 1998–2012 - Tony Bruno
Former Executive Vice President – Dick Nunis (1972–1980)
Operations
The day-to-day operations of the resort are overseen by a hierarchy of operations managers or "stage managers", who change with each shift. They are colloquially known by their radio call signs, which usually contain the manager's department name (e.g., "Merch", "Foods") and an identifying number. Usually "One" denotes the manager in charge of that department for Disneyland Park, "Two" denotes the same for Disney California Adventure, "Three" denotes the same for the resort hotels, and "Four" denotes the same for Downtown Disney.
See also
Incidents at Disney parks
Large amusement railways
List of Disney attractions that were never built
Rail transport in Walt Disney Parks and Resorts
References
External links
1955 establishments in California
Walt Disney Parks and Resorts
Tourist attractions in Anaheim, California
Buildings and structures in Anaheim, California
Amusement parks opened in 1955
History of Anaheim, California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatic%20Sanction%20of%20Bourges
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Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges
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The Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, issued by King Charles VII of France, on 7 July 1438, required a General Church Council, with authority superior to that of the papacy, to be held every ten years, required election rather than appointment to ecclesiastical offices, prohibited the pope from bestowing and profiting from benefices, and forbade appeals to the Roman Curia from places further than two days' journey from Rome. The Pragmatic Sanction further stipulated that interdict could not be placed on cities unless the entire community was culpable. The king accepted many of the decrees of the Council of Basel without endorsing its efforts to coerce Pope Eugene IV.
The Catholic Church of France, in the eyes of some, declared administrative independence from the church in Rome. The Catholic Church of France suppressed the payment of annates to Rome and forbade papal intervention in the appointment of French prelates. While this resulted in a loss of papal power in France, the movement of conciliarists itself was divided. In 1449, the Council of Basel was dissolved, and the Concilliar movement suffered a nearly fatal blow.
The popes, especially Pius II, lobbied the French clergy to the repeal of the Pragmatic Sanction, and the French crown used promises of repeal as an inducement to the papacy to embrace policies favoring its interests, especially its military campaigns in the Italian peninsula. The Pragmatic Sanction was eventually superseded by agreements made between the French crown and Rome, especially the 1516 Concordat of Bologna.
See also
Gallicanism
References
Sources
Further reading
Noël Valois, Histoire de la Pragmatique sanction de Bourges sous Charles VII
(Paris: Picard, 1906).
External links
History of Catholicism in France
Religion in the Ancien Régime
1438 in Europe
1430s in France
Christianity and law in the 15th century
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TransLink%20%28British%20Columbia%29
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TransLink (British Columbia)
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TransLink, formally the South Coast British Columbia Transportation Authority, is the statutory authority responsible for the regional transportation network of Metro Vancouver in British Columbia, Canada, including public transport, major roads and bridges. Its main operating facilities are located in the city of New Westminster.
TransLink was created in 1998 as the Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority (GVTA) and was fully implemented in April 1999 by the Government of British Columbia to replace BC Transit in the Greater Vancouver Regional District and assume many transportation responsibilities previously held by the provincial government. TransLink is responsible for various modes of transportation in the Metro Vancouver region as well as the West Coast Express, which extends into the Fraser Valley Regional District (FVRD). On November 29, 2007, the province of British Columbia approved legislation changing the governance structure and official name of the organization.
Transit
Buses
Buses in Metro Vancouver are operated by three companies. Coast Mountain Bus Company operates regular transit buses, generally powered by diesel or natural gas, in most of the region's municipalities, in addition to trolley buses, primarily within the city of Vancouver. The District Municipality of West Vancouver operates the Blue Bus system serving West Vancouver and Lions Bay. First Transit is contracted by TransLink to operate nine community shuttle bus routes in Langley and on Bowen Island. The schedules, fares, and routes of these services are integrated with other transit services operated by TransLink.
Within the city of Vancouver, buses generally run on a grid system, with most trolley bus routes operating radially out of downtown and along north–south arteries, and most diesel buses providing east–west crosstown service, with the University of British Columbia (UBC) as their western terminus. Outside the city of Vancouver, most buses operate on a hub-and-spoke system along feeder routes that connect with SkyTrain, SeaBus, West Coast Express, or other regional centres.
Five high-capacity, high-frequency RapidBus express routes use mostly articulated buses, rounding out the regional public transportation backbone provided by SkyTrain, SeaBus, and West Coast Express.
Electric trolley buses operate on major routes in the city of Vancouver, with one route extending to neighbouring Burnaby. Most trolley bus routes operate in a north–south direction. Trolley buses receive electricity from a network of overhead wires. In the fall of 2006, TransLink introduced a new generation of electric trolley buses, replacing the old models built in the early 1980s. The new trolley buses have low floors and are fully wheelchair accessible.
Many local routes are served by buses manufactured by New Flyer and Nova Bus. TransLink has begun using hybrid diesel-electric buses. Some suburban routes use Orion highway coaches with high-back reclining seats, overhead reading lights and luggage racks. After a successful pilot project through 2017 and 2018, TransLink announced the purchase of 32 Alexander Dennis Enviro500 double-decker buses. TransLink began using double-decker buses to serve the 555, 620, and 301 routes. More double-decker buses were deployed to more routes starting in September 2020.
In 2007, all TransLink buses became designated fare paid zones. Under this system, a rider is required to be in possession of a valid fare (transfer or transit pass) while on board the bus and produce it upon request by a transit official. Enforcement of fares is conducted by Transit Security officers. On all RapidBuses, as well as the 99 B-Line, larger, , three-door buses allow passengers to board through rear doors. As they are bypassing the driver and fare box, they must have a valid fare in their possession. On all other buses, passengers are required to board through the front doors and should produce a valid fare to the bus driver. Fare inspections on buses are normally conducted by Transit Security officers and on occasion by the South Coast British Columbia Transportation Authority Police Service. Failure to produce proof of payment may result in ejection from the bus and/or a fine of $173.
TransLink also operates a late-night bus service, called NightBus, on 10 routes extending from downtown throughout the city and to several suburbs. NightBuses leave downtown Vancouver until 4:30 a.m. For the safety of passengers late at night, Transit Security officers ride some of the night buses and respond to calls onboard others. These buses are popular since SkyTrain ends service at 1:30 a.m. but downtown clubs and bars do not close until 3 a.m.
SkyTrain
The first SkyTrain line, which later became known as the Expo Line, was built in 1985 as a transit showcase for Expo 86. The automated rapid transit system has become an important part of the region's transportation network. The Expo Line operates from downtown Vancouver to southern Burnaby, New Westminster, and Surrey.
The system was expanded with the opening of the Millennium Line in 2002, which now links Coquitlam, Port Moody, Burnaby, and Vancouver. Construction on the Evergreen Extension of the Millennium Line began in 2012 and completed in 2016.
The Canada Line, which was opened on August 17, 2009, runs underground through Vancouver and then along an elevated guideway with two branches, to Richmond and Vancouver International Airport. It meets the Expo Line at Waterfront Station in downtown Vancouver, but it is operationally independent and there is no track connection between them.
The Expo Line and Millennium Line are operated by British Columbia Rapid Transit Company Ltd., a subsidiary of TransLink. The Canada Line is operated by ProTrans BC, a division of SNC-Lavalin.
West Coast Express
The West Coast Express is a commuter railway connecting downtown Vancouver to Metro Vancouver municipalities to the east and terminating in Mission in the FVRD, north of the Fraser River. It is operated by the British Columbia Rapid Transit Company.
SeaBus
SeaBus is a passenger ferry service across Burrard Inlet between Vancouver and the North Shore municipalities that is operated by Coast Mountain Bus Company and integrated with the transit system. It holds approximately 400 people and sails every 15 minutes during rush hour.
Fares
Note that fares differ for those paying with stored value on their Compass cards versus those paying by cash or contactless credit card. Cash and stored value fares are the same for concession riders.
Compass card holders and those with Compass transfers (issued by Compass vending machines at SkyTrain, SeaBus, and West Coast Express stations) are permitted unlimited transfers within a 90-minute period on the bus or on SkyTrain or SeaBus. All buses are considered one-zone fares, but cash fares on buses are not transferable to the SkyTrain or SeaBus owing to technological incompatibility between bus fare box–issued transfers and Compass fare readers. Zone fares apply weekdays before 6:30 p.m. During evenings and on weekends, passengers can travel throughout the system on a one-zone fare.
There is a $5 surcharge, the "YVR AddFare", applied to most fares paid at Canada Line stations on Sea Island—YVR–Airport, Sea Island Centre, and Templeton—for eastbound trips to Bridgeport station or beyond. Trips using a monthly pass are exempt, as are trips using DayPasses purchased and activated off Sea Island. Trips the three stations are not subject to the surcharge. Trips between the three Sea Island stations are free.
Beginning September 2021, fares were adjusted so to that children aged 13 and younger were permitted to ride for free. Concession fares apply to youths aged 14–18 with identification proving age, and seniors aged 65 and over. Students from all public post-secondary institutions in the Lower Mainland, with the exception of the Justice Institute of British Columbia, receive a U-Pass, which is included in student fees. The pass is valid across all three zones.
A Fare Paid Zone is a clearly marked territory on which passengers must have valid proof of payment and produce it for inspection upon request of a Transit Employee. Initially, these were only in effect in SkyTrain and SeaBus stations and vehicles until June 25, 2007, when the law was changed. Now, all buses, including West Vancouver buses, are designated Fare Paid Zones. The reason for implementing Fare Paid Zones on buses was to remove the responsibility of fare enforcement from bus drivers, as too many of them were being assaulted in disputes over fare payment. Fare enforcement on all buses are now the responsibility of the Transit Police and Transit Security Department. Officers may conduct a fare inspection at any time. Those who fail to pay the fare or fail to produce a valid fare could be removed from the transit system and/or fined $173. Currently, only Transit Security and Transit Police have the authority to issue fare evasion fines. Customer Service Attendants and other transit employees may request compliance in regards to fares, but have no authority to issue a fine.
Failure to pay the fare or produce valid proof of payment is an offence. Fare inspections are conducted by the South Coast British Columbia Transportation Authority Police Service and Transit Security. Fraudulent use of fares (e.g., using a fake pass, using another person's non-transferable pass,) may result in criminal charges. Passengers found without a valid fare or who fail to produce valid proof of payment are served with an Infraction Ticket of $173, under the Fare Collection Regulation. In September 2012, amendments to the South Coast British Columbia Transportation Authority Act came into effect, making TransLink responsible for collection of fines issued by Transit Police and Transit Security. Since October 5, 2015, all bus travel is considered one-zone travel and no additional fares are required for crossing fare boundaries on the bus.
On April 4, 2016, TransLink's new fare gates were implemented for ridership on SkyTrain and SeaBus. To open the fare gates, to enter or exit the system, a Compass card or Compass ticket (purchased from a Compass vending machine) must be used. Compass cards may be used to pay fares on and buses, although FareSaver tickets may still be used on buses. Buses continue issue paper passes for fares paid in cash. Neither FareSavers nor the transfer tickets may be used to open fare gates. Compass cards work on all transit services using a tap in method to pay fares. Tap out however is not required on buses. The cards may be loaded with monthly passes, day passes, or stored value, or any combination, with the ability to auto-load the fare choice. Annual passes have been eliminated.
After the December 2015 TransLink announcement that the gates would close on April 4, 2016, groups working with those who have disabilities complained about potential accessibility problems with the fare gate system. TransLink's response was to have staff assist those with disabilities enter or exit the system, or to leave the gates open when staff were not present. This lasted until July 25, 2016, when the gates were fully closed. No data have been presented to indicate if the system has reduced fare evasion, estimated at between $6 and $7million per year, which was the promise of the new $194million system, although preliminary data showed that revenue had increased by 7% after its introduction.
On May 22, 2018, the ability to pay with contactless Visa and Mastercard credit cards (including mobile payment software) was added to Compass readers. Fares paid in this manner are charged at the full cash fares.
On March 20, 2020, TransLink suspended fare collection on all buses indefinitely in an effort to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic in the province, specifically to meet physical distancing requirements in combating the spread of COVID-19. Part of the measures included allowing the boarding and alighting of passengers only via a bus' rear door, which lack the means to collect cash fares. Those needing mobility assistance could continue boarding through the front door. TransLink later reduced capacity on all buses by 50 percent to further physical distancing goals. No changes to fares or capacity were implemented for the SeaBus, the SkyTrain or the West Coast Express. On June 1, 2020, TransLink resumed fare collection on buses, citing improved safety features for drivers and the over $2 million dollars a month in lost revenue due to the fare suspension.
Ridership
Transit security
Coast Mountain Bus Company operates TransLink's Transit Security department. Transit security officers are mobile, ride buses and trains, inspect fares, issue fines and patrol TransLink properties. They work closely with transit police to ensure safety throughout the transit network. Transit security officers are authorized to arrest persons committing criminal offences on or in relation to any TransLink property, under the Canadian Criminal Code. They are also authorized to enforce the Transit Conduct and Safety Regulations and the Transit Tariff Bylaw. The Transit Security department is also responsible for the CCTV camera system aboard buses.
On November 14, 2006, the Canadian government announced that it would spend $37million for improvements to transit security across Canada, including $9.8million for the Vancouver area. CCTV cameras have been installed on all TransLink buses newer than 2006, except for Community Shuttle units.
Transit police
TransLink replaced its special provincial constables, who held limited policing power, with the Metro Vancouver Transit Police in December 2005. In contrast to the former TransLink special constables, transit police constables have full police powers both on and off of TransLink property. They are based in New Westminster, BC.
Livery
Shortly after its inception, TransLink's board of directors approved replacement of the old BC Transit colours with TransLink's new blue and yellow colour scheme, or livery. It also created brands for the agency's different services, each with a different logo based on these colours, with the exception of the West Coast Express. The board decided against changing West Coast Express's purple colour to blue, since purple and yellow create a premium brand differentiable from TransLink's blue and yellow livery. Repainting of vehicles did not incur any additional costs, as it was completed during regular maintenance repaints or new vehicle purchases. At the time of approval, TransLink estimated that it would take until the end of 2007 to convert the entire fleet to the new livery.
In 2001, TransLink introduced a new set of long-distance buses under the ExpressBus brand with its own livery. In 2018, TransLink began to replace these buses and the ExpressBus livery was abandoned for a revised version of the new corporate livery introduced in 2005.
In 2003, TransLink placed an order for 228 new trolley buses which began to arrive in 2005. These buses featured a new livery composed of yellow, blue, and two shades of grey, which was then adopted as a permanent corporate livery. This new livery was later added to older SeaBus vessels and SkyTrain rolling stock in an attempt to unify the fleet.
In January 2020, TransLink converted most of its B-Line service into a new service called RapidBus, whose vehicles sported a new livery. The RapidBus livery is a variation of the standard TransLink livery but features a green-and-blue colour scheme.
Major Road Network
TransLink works with municipalities within the region to plan and maintain the region's Major Road Network (MRN). The MRN consists of major arterial roads throughout the region which carry commuter, transit, and truck traffic. The network serves to connect the provincial highway system with local municipalities' road networks. TransLink contributes funding for the operation and maintenance of the MRN, but ownership and operation of the roads remain with the local municipalities. Road, cycling, and pedestrian improvement projects in the MRN are also partially funded by TransLink. As a part of the MRN, TransLink also owns and maintains five bridges within the region:
Canada Line bike and pedestrian bridge
Golden Ears Bridge
Knight Street Bridge
Pattullo Bridge
Westham Island Bridge
In December 2018, of roadway was added to the MRN. This was the largest one-time addition to the MRN since the arterial roadway network designation was created in 1998.
Transit-related improvements
TransLink allocates funding to each municipality for transit improvements, such as transit priority signals, queue-jumping lanes for buses, and bus lanes. TransLink contributes up to half of the costs of municipal capital projects, up to the maximum funding allocated to each municipality.
Cycling
TransLink employs several engineers and planners who administer its bicycle program. TransLink works with many cycling stakeholders, such as the Vancouver Area Cycling Coalition.
TransLink invests $6million in cycling each year (as of 2007). This money is spread among capital and operating projects, with some allocated to cost-sharing programs, which result in additional investment in cycling.
Metro Vancouver has a growing network of cycling paths. TransLink allocates funding to each municipality for cycling improvements, such as bike paths, through a cost-sharing program called the Bicycle Infrastructure Capital Cost Sharing Program. TransLink contributes up to half of the costs of municipal capital projects, up to the maximum funding allocated to each municipality. Municipalities are eligible to apply for a share of the available funding each year. Most of the funding is allocated this way, while some funding is available in a competitive process called Regional Needs. The funding process is overseen by the Bicycle Working Group, composed of municipal cycling staff.
TransLink also produces a regional cycling map, which is available for sale or as a free PDF file downloadable from its website. Many municipalities also produce their own local cycling maps.
TransLink supports many cycling-related community initiatives and events, particularly Bike Month, held every June.
All modes of transit in Metro Vancouver carry bicycles. Most buses operated by TransLink have bike racks, supplied by SportWorks. Bikes are allowed on SeaBus. Bikes are also allowed on SkyTrain, except during weekday rush hours in the peak direction of travel (inbound to Vancouver in the morning rush hour and outbound from Vancouver in the evening rush hour).
TransLink installs and maintains bicycle parking racks and lockers at SkyTrain stations and transit interchanges through private contractors.
Emission control
AirCare was a regionally mandated automobile emissions program operated by a subsidiary of TransLink. The program was discontinued on December 31, 2014.
Accessibility
All vehicles, stations, and facilities are fully accessible; however, several issues exist on parts of the system, notably wheelchair accessibility in some areas. Improvements have been made, and accessibility issues became particularly important with the hosting of the Paralympic Winter Games in 2010. Because of this, TransLink initiated the Access Transit Project, whose final report was completed in June 2007.
Buses
All buses in the TransLink fleet are accessible, with most being low-floor vehicles that have ramps, although some are high-floor vehicles that have specially designed lifts. However, some stops are considered inaccessible if there is insufficient room to deploy the lifts or ramps.
There is space for two wheelchairs on each bus, and the wheelchair area is also used for walkers and baby strollers. Passengers using wheelchairs have priority for these positions, and lower-priority users (such as those with strollers) are required to vacate the space as needed.
In August 2006, TransLink began replacing its entire fleet of inaccessible electric trolley buses with 188 standard low-floor accessible trolley buses. In 2008 and 2009, it purchased 74 new articulated low-floor accessible trolley buses, which are used on routes #3 (Main), #8 (Fraser), #10 (Granville), and #20 (Victoria). By the end of 2009, the entire fleet of trolley buses was low-floor and accessible.
In late 2008, TransLink introduced voice announcement systems on most buses to help those with vision impairments or unfamiliar with the region and to allow operators to focus on driving instead of making announcements. The annunciators use a computer-generated voice to call out bus stops and other messages, using GPS technology installed on each bus to identify the bus's location and the next stop. There were a few problems with the system, however, such as audio quality and volume levels.
SkyTrain
All of the SkyTrain network, including stations and vehicles, is accessible. Older Bombardier Mark I cars have one wheelchair-designated spot, while the Bombardier Mark II and Mark III cars, along with the Hyundai Rotem cars, have two.
Some newer accessibility features introduced include Bombardier Mark II and Mark III cars with door indicator lights and LED route maps.
SeaBus
All SeaBus vessels and both Lonsdale Quay and Waterfront Stations are accessible.
West Coast Express
All West Coast Express trains and stations are accessible. Ramps are provided at stations for boarding, and trains have two wheelchair spaces on most cars, and an accessible washroom.
HandyDART
HandyDART is a supplementary system that provides transportation service to those who are unable to use the regular system due to mobility problems or a lack of accessible transit. HandyDART service is operated by seven different contractors throughout Metro Vancouver, most of which are not-for-profit corporations.
HandyDART users apply for a pass and pay for each trip. Each trip must be pre-booked, up to one week in advance, and is subject to availability at the desired time. Each contractor operates regionally, meaning that it is not always possible to use HandyDART for an entire trip (for example, from Burnaby to Vancouver).
Governance
Mayors' Council
The Mayors' Council is composed of the 21 mayors of Metro Vancouver municipalities and the Chief of Tsawwassen First Nation, who represent the interests of citizens of the region. It approves plans prepared by TransLink, including transportation plans, regional funding, and borrowing limits. Each year, the Mayors' Council appoints three new directors to TransLink's Board of Directors from a shortlist of candidates prepared by the screening panel.
Screening panel
Under the terms of provincial legislation, each year the screening panel prepares a shortlist of candidates for TransLink's Board of Directors. The shortlist must consist of at least five candidates for the three available positions on the Board of Directors. The screening panel is composed of five members. Each of the following organizations must appoint one person to the Screening Panel:
Vancouver Board of Trade
Chartered Accountants of BC
Greater Vancouver Gateway Council
British Columbia's Minister of Transportation and Infrastructure
Mayors' Council
Board of directors and chief executive officer
The board is responsible for hiring, compensating, and monitoring the performance of the CEO and for providing oversight of TransLink's strategic planning, finances, major capital projects, and operations. While the board conducts four public meetings a year, most of its deliberations are conducted in closed meetings.
Board members are appointed to serve a three-year term and can be reappointed for a second term. Most have extensive ties to private businesses.
Regional transportation commissioner
Provincial legislation passed in June 2014 dissolved the position of the regional transportation commissioner. Prior to this time, the regional transportation commissioner approved all cash fare increases greater than the rate of inflation. The commissioner also approved TransLink's plans for annual customer satisfaction surveys, its customer complaint process, and any proposed sale of major assets. The regional transportation commissioner operated separately from the Mayors' Council, the TransLink board of directors, and TransLink staff.
Criticism of governance model
In 2013, a report commissioned by the Mayors' Council criticized TransLink's governance model, stating that TransLink lacked "accountability to the population being served, which is almost completely missing from the present arrangements". The report also stated that the absence of mechanisms to "ensure accountability, effectiveness, and efficiency" made TransLink's governance "unique in the world and not in a good way".
2007 reorganization
On March 8, 2007, BC Minister of Transportation Kevin Falcon announced a restructuring of TransLink. Major changes include new revenue-generating measures, a restructuring of the executive of the body, and increases in the areas under TransLink's jurisdiction.
The reorganization of TransLink proposed the following changes:
The old board will be replaced by a Council of Mayors from the municipalities in the area served by TransLink, a board of non-political experts, and a regional transportation commissioner appointed by the Council of Mayors.
The provincial government will set the regional transportation vision.
The Board will guide the operation of TransLink as per the 3- and 10-year transportation plans. It will also develop the options for 3- and 10-year plans; one option will be a base option that maintains the status quo.
The Council of Mayors will vote on which 3- and 10-year transportation plan options to adopt. Mayors will receive one vote per 20,000 people or portion thereof in their jurisdiction.
The TransLink independent commissioner will ensure that TransLink's 3- and 10-year transportation plans are consistent with the regional transportation vision set by the provincial government.
TransLink's jurisdiction is initially planned to be expanded to include Mission, Abbotsford, and Squamish. In the long term, this may be further expanded to include the area along the Sea-to-Sky Highway as far north as Pemberton and east to Hope.
TransLink will be funded using an approximate ratio of 1/3 of revenue from fuel taxes, 1/3 of revenue from property taxes, and 1/3 of revenue from other non-government sources (e.g., fares, advertising, property development).
TransLink will hold the power to increase funding from fuel tax from 12 cents per litre (55 cents per Imp gal or 45 cents per US gal) to 15 cents per litre (68 cents per Imp gal or 57 cents per US gal). In 2012, the rate was increased to 17 cents.
TransLink will increase funding by raising property taxes, parking sales taxes, and other sources of revenue (e.g., fares, property development).
TransLink will eliminate the parking tax (different from parking sales tax) and the BC Hydro transportation levy.
AirCare will be removed from TransLink's authority and will become the responsibility of Metro Vancouver.
The provincial government will continue to contribute toward rapid transit projects, but funding will be contingent on municipalities increasing population densities around planned rapid transit stations.
Falcon had called the old board "dysfunctional", saying that board members were focused on the interests of their own municipalities instead of the broader interests of the region. According to Falcon, the board of directors had "no ability there to develop the skill-set to understand major, multi-billion projects." British Columbia New Democratic Party critic David Chudnovsky responded that the reorganization was "ludicrous" and that its purpose was "to get power away from our elected municipal politicians because once in a while they disagree with the aggressive privatization agenda of Mr. Falcon". Chudnovsky was also worried about the consequences of a property development slowdown.
On April 26, 2007, the provincial government introduced legislation to restructure TransLink. The proposed successor body was to be known as the South Coast British Columbia Transportation Authority. The legislation received Royal Assent on November 29, 2007, and came into effect on January 1, 2008, with some parts of the organization, like the Council of Mayors, beginning functions the day after the legislation was approved.
On March 19, 2008, the Vancouver Sun reported that TransLink was launching a real estate division that could produce over $1.5billion in revenue over the ensuing ten years.
NDP critic Maurine Karagianis introduced a private member's bill dubbed the "TransLink Openness Act".
2015 plebiscite
In 2015, residents of Metro Vancouver were asked to vote in a mail-in plebiscite on a proposal to adopt a new 0.5% sales tax to fund improvements in transit infrastructure, and completion of current TransLink projects. Ballots were mailed in March, and had to be returned by 8:00 pm on May 29, 2015.
The tax was designed to generate annual revenue of $250million to help fund an $8billion, 10-year transit plan including the following projects:
Adding bus service and 11 new B-Line rapid bus routes
Increasing service on SkyTrain, SeaBus, and West Coast Express
Maintaining and upgrading of major roads
Building a new Pattullo Bridge
Building LRT connecting Surrey Centre with Guildford, Newton, and Langley
Extending the Millennium Line along Broadway in Vancouver
Extending cycling and pedestrian walkway networks
The tax was supported by environmental groups, student groups and nearly every local government. Opposition to the tax was headed by the Canadian Taxpayers Federation who drew the public's attention to purported misuse of funds by TransLink. A widely circulated statistic was the fact that TransLink had the highest cost per revenue passenger of the major Canadian transit agencies. Supporters countered with other analyses that showed TransLink to be ranked first by cost per service hour, service hours per $1million and service hours per capita. The Yes campaign outspent the No campaign by $5.8million to $40,000. Surveys conducted by Insights West showed the Yes side ahead in December 2014, but support dropped to 37 per cent the week before the ballots were mailed. After the failure of the plebiscite, several executives at TransLink were removed from their positions.
Results
10-Year Investment Plan
After the failure of the 2015 plebiscite, TransLink developed the 10-Year Investment Plan. The plan was structured to be delivered in three phases over ten years, starting in April 2017.
As originally released
Phase one was scheduled to be rolled out between 2017 and 2026, and it included the launch of five new B-Lines, and service improvements on buses, SkyTrain, SeaBus, and HandyDART. TransLink planned to purchase 171 more buses, 50 new SkyTrain cars, five new West Coast Express passenger cars, and one new SeaBus vessel. It also provided funding for improved roads, cycling paths, and sidewalks.
Phase two was scheduled to be rolled out between 2018 and 2027, and it included the construction of the Broadway SkyTrain extension, the construction of the Surrey–Newton–Guildford LRT, the launch of two more B-Lines, the replacement of the Pattullo Bridge, pre-construction of the Surrey–Langley LRT, and more rail and station upgrades on the existing SkyTrain network. It also included continued service improvements on buses and HandyDART, and continued funding for improved roads, cycling paths, and sidewalks.
Phase three is the final delivery of the 10-Year Investment Plan, which was scheduled to be rolled out between 2020 and 2030. It included four new B-Lines, more service improvements on buses, SkyTrain, and HandyDART service. It also included the construction of the Surrey–Langley LRT as well as continued funding for improved roads, cycling paths, and sidewalks.
Implementation and alterations
Phase one was approved by the Mayors' Council in November 2016; implementation began in January 2017. Phase two was approved in June 2018, and phase three is scheduled for approval in 2019.
In November 2018, the Surrey light rail system, including the Surrey–Newton–Guildford (SNG) route and the Surrey–Langley route, was rejected by Surrey City Council after a municipal government change that saw Doug McCallum return to the city's mayorship. McCallum had campaigned on cancelling the plans for light rail and instead extending the Expo Line from King George station to Langley. This plan was approved by the Mayors' Council in principle that same month, but the $1.65billion in funding that was earmarked for the light rail project, which was intended to be repurposed to construct the extension to Langley, was determined to be insufficient to fund the entire extension, with $1.9billion more needed to complete the project. The existing funding would only extend the line to Fleetwood in Surrey and add four new stations, terminating at 166th Street. In July 2019, the Mayors' Council voted to extend the Expo Line to Fleetwood using these existing funds. The Council also voted to proceed with preparing a detailed business case for the full Surrey–Langley SkyTrain extension, which was expected to be completed by early 2020. If approved by the end of the third quarter of 2020, construction could start in early 2022, with revenue service to Fleetwood projected to start in late 2025.
See also
Albion Ferry – former free automobile ferry service between Langley Township and Maple Ridge across the Fraser River
John Boyarski – TransLink driver who received awards for bravery
Notes
References
External links
Westham Bridge
Vancouver Bridges
Transit History in Vancouver
Website for The Buzzer newsletter, published by TransLink
Federal government, Translink and Vancouver improve city buses | Transport Canada
Transit agencies in British Columbia
New Westminster
Canadian companies established in 1998
1998 establishments in British Columbia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spindle
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Spindle
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Spindle may refer to:
Textiles and manufacturing
Spindle (textiles), a straight spike to spin fibers into yarn
Spindle (tool), a rotating axis of a machine tool
Biology
Spindle apparatus or mitotic spindle, a cellular structure in cell biology
Muscle spindle, stretch receptors within the body of a muscle
Spindle neuron, a specific class of neuron
Sleep spindle, bursts of neural oscillatory activity during sleep
Spindle transfer, an in vitro fertilization the technique
Spindle, common name of some species of shrubs and trees in genus Euonymus
Computing
Spindle (hard disk drive), the axis of a hard disk drive
Spindle (disc packaging), a plastic case for bulk optical disks
Vehicles
Spindle (automobile), a part of a car's suspension system
Spindle (vehicle), an autonomous ice-penetrating vehicle
Other uses
Spindle (furniture), cylindrically symmetric shaft, usually made of wood
Spindle (sculpture), a 1989 sculpture by Dustin Shuler made from cars
Spindle (stationery), an upright spike used to hold papers
Spindle, part of a door handle
See also
Fusiform, having a spindle-like shape
Rotation around a fixed axis
Spindel, a surname
Spindler, a surname
Spindling, in computing
The Spindles (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20Murie
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Margaret Murie
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Margaret Thomas "Mardy" Murie (August 18, 1902 – October 19, 2003) was a naturalist, author, adventurer, and conservationist. Dubbed the "Grandmother of the Conservation Movement" by both the Sierra Club and the Wilderness Society, she helped in the passage of the Wilderness Act, and was instrumental in creating the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. She was the recipient of the Audubon Medal, the John Muir Award, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom—the highest civilian honor awarded by the United States.
Early life
Born Margaret Thomas on August 28, 1902 in Seattle, Washington, Murie moved to Fairbanks, Alaska, with her family when she was nine years old. She attended Reed College in Oregon for two years before transferring to Simmons College in Massachusetts for a year, then transferred to and became the first woman to graduate from the Alaska Agricultural College and School of Mines (now the University of Alaska Fairbanks); she graduated in 1924 with a degree in business administration. She met Olaus Murie in Fairbanks, and they married in 1924 at sunrise in Anvik, Alaska.
From 1927 onward, the Muries were residents of Jackson, Wyoming, where Olaus studied ecology, specifically the elk population. Mardy worked side-by-side with Olaus in the field, studying elk, sheep and numerous other animals in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. The couple would camp for weeks at a time in the wild, open valley of Jackson Hole. Olaus' primary goal was to identify pressures on the elk population, causing the startling decrease in the area. Over the course of nearly 40 years, The couple had numerous backcountry expeditions tracking the wildlife in the area. The couple even took expeditions when their three children were still nursing.
After World War II, they chose to buy a dude ranch after Mardy decided she no longer wanted to live in town; she wanted to walk out her back door and into the woods. The Murie Ranch became a hub for conversations and problem solving to protect the wild. Olaus and Mardy took on work as director and secretary of the Wilderness Society, helping draft recommendations for legislation and policy like the protection of Jackson Hole National Monument. After Olaus died, Mardy traveled to Alaska, Tanzania, and New Zealand studying wild areas, assessing areas for wilderness qualities and working to protect nature from exploitation.
Books and articles
Two in the Far North, a memoir published in 1962, chronicles Murie's early life, her marriage, and research expeditions in Alaska. She wrote Island Between, published in 1977, and Wapiti Wilderness, published in 1966 with her husband. A documentary, Arctic Dance, was made about her life.
Work as a wilderness advocate, advisor and consultant
Mardy and Olaus spent their honeymoon studying birds and traveling over 500 miles by dogsled, conducting research on the caribou of the Brooks Range. Margaret's idea of preserving an entire ecosystem laid the scientific and intellectual groundwork for large parks and preserves.
In 1956, Murie began a campaign with her husband to protect what is now the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The couple recruited U.S. Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas to help persuade President Dwight Eisenhower to set aside as the Arctic National Wildlife Range, which was expended and renamed in 1980 by President Jimmy Carter.
After her husband's death in 1963, Murie began writing and continued the conservation work she and Olaus had begun, writing letters and articles, traveling to hearings and making speeches. She served as a consultant to the Wilderness Society, the National Park Service and the Sierra Club, among many other organizations. Murie returned to Alaska to survey potential wilderness areas for the National Park Service and worked on the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, testifying before congress in favor of the act, which was signed by President Carter in 1980. That legislation set aside of land in Alaska and doubled the size of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The Murie Residence in Moose, Wyoming, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1990, and as part of the Murie Ranch Historic District was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2006. It now houses a conservation institute named for Murie and her husband.
Awards
Murie received the Audubon Medal in 1980, the John Muir Award in 1983, and the Robert Marshall Conservation Award in 1986. She was made an honorary park ranger by the National Park Service and received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Alaska.
In 1998 President Clinton awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Just prior to her 100th birthday in 2002, Murie received the J.N. Ding Darling Conservationist of the Year Award, the National Wildlife Federation's highest honor.
Murie died in Moose, Wyoming, on October 19, 2003, at the age of 101.
References
Footnotes
Sources
Charles Craighead, Bonnie Kreps: Arctic Dance. , 2002
Two in the Far North
Waipiti Wilderness
Island Between
External links
Mardy Murie obituary
Los Angeles Times Obituary for Mardy Murie
Inventory of the Murie Family Papers at the University of Wyoming - American Heritage Center
Select digital collection of photos and film of the Murie Family - AHC digital archives
blog posts on the Murie Family on the AHC website
1902 births
2003 deaths
American conservationists
American naturalists
National Park Service
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
American centenarians
Writers from Seattle
Writers from Fairbanks, Alaska
University of Alaska Fairbanks alumni
20th-century American women writers
Sierra Club awardees
People from Moose, Wyoming
Women centenarians
20th-century naturalists
21st-century American women
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph%20Rummel
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Rudolph Rummel
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Rudolph Joseph Rummel (October 21, 1932 – March 2, 2014) was an American political scientist and professor at the Indiana University, Yale University, and University of Hawaiʻi. He spent his career studying data on collective violence and war with a view toward helping their resolution or elimination. Contrasting genocide, Rummel coined the term democide for murder by government, such as the genocide of indigenous peoples and colonialism, Nazi Germany, the Stalinist purges, Mao Zedong's Cultural Revolution, and other authoritarian, totalitarian, or undemocratic regimes, coming to the conclusion that democratic regimes result in the least democides.
Rummel estimated that a total of 212 million people were killed by all governments during the 20th century, of which 148 million were killed by Communist governments from 1917 to 1987. To give some perspective on these numbers, Rummel stated that all domestic and foreign wars during the 20th century killed in combat around 41 million. His figures for Communist governments have been criticized for the methodology which he used to arrive at them, and they have also been criticized for being higher than the figures which have been given by most scholars. In his last book, Rummel increased his estimate to over 272 million innocent, non-combatant civilians who were murdered by their own governments during the 20th century. Rummel stated that his 272 million death estimate was his lower, more prudent figure, stating that it "could be over 400,000,000." Rummel came to the conclusion that a democracy is the form of government which is least likely to kill its citizens because democracies do not tend to wage wars against each other. This latest view is a concept, which was further developed by Rummel, known as the democratic peace theory.
Rummel was the author of twenty-four scholarly books, and he published his major results between 1975 and 1981 in Understanding Conflict and War (1975). He spent the next fifteen years refining the underlying theory and testing it empirically on new data, against the empirical results of others, and on case studies. He summed up his research in Power Kills (1997). His other works include Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocides and Mass Murders 1917–1987 (1990), China's Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900 (1991), Democide: Nazi Genocide and Mass Murder (1992), Death by Government: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900 (1994), and Statistics of Democide (1997). Extracts, figures, and tables from the books, including his sources and details regarding the calculations, are available online on his website. Rummel also authored Applied Factor Analysis (1970) and Understanding Correlation (1976).
Early life, education, and death
Rummel was born in 1932 in Cleveland, Ohio, to a family of German descent. A child of the Great Depression and World War II, he attended local public schools. Rummel received his B.A. and M.A. from the University of Hawaiʻi in 1959 and 1961, respectively, and his Ph.D. in political science from Northwestern University in 1963.
Rummel died on March 2, 2014, aged 81. He is survived by two daughters and one sister.
Academic career and research
Rummel began his teaching career at Indiana University. In 1964, Rummel moved to Yale University, and in 1966 returned to the University of Hawaiʻi, where he taught there for the rest of his active career. In 1995, Rummel retired and became professor emeritus of political science. His research was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation, DARPA, and the United States Peace Research Institute. In addition to his books, Rummel was the author of more than 100 professional articles.
Rummel was a member of the advisory council of the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation.
Democide
Rummel coined democide, which he defined as "the murder of any person or people by a government, including genocide, politicide, and mass murder." Rummel further stated to "use the civil definition of murder, where someone can be guilty of murder if they are responsible in a reckless and wanton way for the loss of life, as in incarcerating people in camps where they may soon die of malnutrition, unattended disease, and forced labor, or deporting them into wastelands where they may die rapidly from exposure and disease."
In his work and research, Rummel distinguished between colonial, democratic, and authoritarian and totalitarian regimes, and found a correlation with authoritarianism and totalitarianism, which he considered to be a significant causative factor in democides. Rummel posited that there is a relation between political power and democide. Political mass murder grows increasingly common as political power becomes unconstrained. At the other end of the scale, where power is diffuse, checked, and balanced, political violence is a rarity. For Rummel, "[t]he more power a regime has, the more likely people will be killed. This is a major reason for promoting freedom." He wrote that "concentrated political power is the most dangerous thing on earth." This correlation is considered by Rummel to be more important than reliability of estimates.
Democracy and peace
After Dean Babst, Rummel was one of the early researchers on the democratic peace theory. Rummel found that there were 205 wars between non-democracies, 166 wars between non-democracies and democracies, and no wars between democracies during the period between 1816 and 2005. The definition of democracy used by Rummel is "where those who hold power are elected in competitive elections with a secret ballot and wide franchise (loosely understood as including at least 2/3 of adult males); where there is freedom of speech, religion, and organization; and a constitutional framework of law to which the government is subordinate and that guarantees equal rights." In addition, it should be "well-established", stating that "enough time has passed since its inception for peace-sufficient democratic procedures to become accepted and democratic culture to settle in. Around three years seems to be enough for this."
Regarding war, Rummel adopted the definition of a popular database, namely that war is a conflict causing at least 1,000 battle deaths. The peace is explained thus: "Start with the answer of the philosopher Immanuel Kant to why universalizing republics (democracy was a bad word for Classical Liberals in his time) would create a peaceful world. People would not support and vote for wars in which they and their loved ones could die and lose their property. But this is only partly correct, for the people can get aroused against nondemocracies and push their leaders toward war, as in the Spanish–American War. A deeper explanation is that where people are free, they create an exchange society of overlapping groups and multiple and crosschecking centers of power. In such a society a culture of negotiation, tolerance, and splitting differences develops. Moreover, free people develop an in-group orientation toward other such societies, a feeling of shared norms and ideals that militates against violence toward other free societies."
Mortacide
While democide requires governmental intention, Rummel was also interested in analyzing the effects of regimes that unintentionally, yet culpably, cause the deaths of their citizens through negligence, incompetence or sheer indifference. An example is a regime in which corruption has become so pervasive and destructive of a people's welfare that it threatens their daily lives and reduces their life expectancy. Rummel termed deaths of citizens under such regimes as mortacide, and posited that democracies have the fewest of such deaths.
Famine, economic growth, and happiness
Rummel included famine in democide, if he deemed it the result of a deliberate policy, as he did for the Holodomor. Rummel stated that there have been no famines in democracies, deliberate or not, an argument first advanced by Amartya Sen, and he also posited that democracy is an important factor for economic growth and for raising living standards. He stated that research shows average happiness in a nation increases with more democracy. According to Rummel, the continuing increase in the number of democracies worldwide would lead to an end to wars and democide. He believed that goal might be achieved by the mid-21st century.
Political views
Rummel started out as a socialist but later became an anti-communist, a libertarian, and an advocate of economic liberalism. Apart from being an outspoken critic of communism and Communist states, Rummel criticized right-wing dictatorships and the democides that occurred under colonialism, which also resulted in the hundreds of million deaths. Rummel was a strong supporter of spreading liberal democracy, although he did not support invading another country solely to replace a dictatorship. Rummel posited that there is less foreign violence when states are more libertarian.
Rummel was critical of past American foreign policy such as the Philippine War, involvement in the 1900 Battle of Peking, and the strategic bombing of civilians during World War II, and he also believed that the United States under the Democratic Party United States president Woodrow Wilson was a domestic tyranny. Rummel strongly supported the War on Terror and the Iraq War initiated by the Republican George W. Bush administration, arguing that "the media [was] biased against freeing Iraqi from tyranny." Rummel also proposed that an intergovernmental organization of all democracies outside of the United Nations deals with issues about which the United Nations cannot or would not act, in particular to further the promotion of peace, human security, human rights, and democracy through what he termed "an Alliance of Democracies [which] can do much better." Rummel thought that Democratic United States senator Ted Kennedy's opposition to the Vietnam War led to the state killings in Cambodia and Vietnam during the 1970s. Following the death of Kennedy, Rummel condemned the media reaction as too benign, and stated that "the post-war blood of millions is on Kennedy's hands."
Rummel was critical of Barack Obama and the Democratic Party, alleging that they were seeking to establish an authoritarian, one-party state. He believed that global warming was "a scam for power" and opposed Obama's carbon-trading scheme. Rummel thought that Obama killed off a democratic peace that Democratic Bill Clinton and Republican George W. Bush had been pursuing. Rummel posited that there was a leftist bias in some parts of the academic world that selectively focused on problems in nations with high political and economic freedom and ignored much worse problems in other nations. Related to this, he also criticized the tenure system.
Reception
Democratic peace theory
The democratic peace theory is one of the great controversies in political science and one of the main challenges to realism in international relations. More than a hundred different researchers have published multiple articles in this field according to an incomplete bibliography until 2000, and from 2000 to August 2009. Some critics respond that there have been exceptions to the theory. While it is generally statistically true that democides happen more in authoritarian than democratic regimes, there have been a few exceptions for democratic regimes, and some authoritarian regimes have not engaged in the megamurder category of democide. Rummel discussed some of these exceptions in his FAQ, and he has referred to books by other scholars such as Never at War. Criticism of the democratic peace theory include data, definition, historical periods, limited consequences, methodology, microfoundations, and statistical significance criticism, that peace comes before democracy, and several studies fail to confirm democracies are less likely to wage war than autocracies if wars against non-democracies are included. Jeffrey Pugh summarized that those who dispute the theory often do so on grounds that it conflates correlation with causation, and the academic definitions of democracy and war can be manipulated so as to manufacture an artificial trend. Rummel's first work on democratic peace received little attention. His results were incorporated in a "gigantic philosophical scheme" of 33 propositions in a five-volume work. It was reviewed in 1992 as having "immoderate pretensions", and demonstrated Rummel's "unrelenting" economic liberalism and "extreme" views on defense policy. Nils Petter Gleditsch said that these elements may have distracted readers from Rummel's more conventionally acceptable propositions.
Rummel's version of the democratic peace theory has some distinctive features disputed by some other researchers who support the existence and explanatory power of the theory. Rummel's early research found that democracies are less warlike, even against non-democracies; other researchers hold only that democracies are far less warlike with one another. Rummel held that democracies properly defined never go to war with each other, and added that this is an "absolute or (point) claim." Other researchers such as Stuart A. Bremer found that it is a chance or stochastic matter; in this sense, Rummel's version of the democratic peace theory was deterministic. A review by James Lee Ray cited several other studies finding that the increase in the risk of war in democratizing countries happens only if many or most of the surrounding nations are undemocratic. If wars between young democracies are included in the analysis, several studies and reviews still find enough evidence supporting the stronger claim that all democracies, whether young or established, go into war with one another less frequently, while some do not.
Rummel did not always apply his definition of democracy to governments under discussion, and he did not always clarify when he did not apply it. The opening paragraphs of an appendix from his book Power Kills adopt Michael Doyle's lists of liberal democracies for 1776–1800 and 1800–1850. Doyle used a much looser definition, namely the secret ballot that was first adopted by Tasmania in 1856, while Belgium had barely 10% adult male suffrage before 1894.
Factor analysis
Critical reviews of Rummel's estimates have focused on two aspects, namely his choice of data sources and his statistical approach. Historical sources Rummel based his estimates upon can rarely serve as sources of reliable figures. The statistical approach Rummel used to analyze big sets of diverse estimates may lead to dilution of useful data with noisy ones. Rummel and other genocide scholars are focused primarily on establishing patterns and testing various theoretical explanations of genocides and mass killings. In their work, as they are dealing with large data sets that describe mass mortality events globally, they have to rely on selective data provided by country experts, so precise estimates are neither a required nor expected result of their work. Yehuda Bauer, noted scholar of the Holocaust who commented that democide is more appropriate to describe mass atrocities perpetrated by state actors than genocide, wrote in Rethinking the Holocaust: "Rummel has been criticized for exaggerating the losses. Even if the criticisms were valid, a figure lower by 10 or 20 or even 30 percent would make absolutely no difference to the general conclusions that Rummel draws."
Awards and nominations
In 1999, Rummel was awarded the Susan Strange Award of the International Studies Association. This award recognizes a person "whose singular intellect, assertiveness, and insight most challenge conventional wisdom and intellectual and organizational complacency in the international studies community." In 2003, Rummel was given The Lifetime Achievement Award from the Conflict Processes Organized Section of the American Political Science Association for "scholarly contributions that have fundamentally improved the study of conflict processes."
Rummel used to publicly claim that he was a finalist for the Nobel Prize for Peace, based on an Associated Press report reprinted in his local paper about an alleged Nobel short list of 117 names. Although he retracted the claim, it still appeared in one of his books. Rummel was nominated multiple times for the Peace Prize by Per Ahlmark but no shortlist has been made public.
Never Again Series
Rummel wrote the Never Again Series of alternative-history novels. According to the series' website, Never Again is "a what-if, alternative history" in which "two lovers are sent back in time to 1906 with modern weapons and 38 billion 1906 dollars" in order to prevent the rise of totalitarianism and the outbreak of world wars.
Published works
Most books and articles by Rummel are available for free download at his Freedom, Democide, War website, including those not listed here.
Books
Dimensions of Nations, SAGE Publications, 1972
Wilkenfeld, J., ed. Conflict Behavior & Linkage Politics (contributor), David McKay, 1973
Peace Endangered: Reality of Détente, SAGE Publications, 1976
Understanding Conflict and War, John Wiley & Sons, 1976
Conflict in Perspective (Understanding Conflict and War), SAGE Publications, 1977
Field Theory Evolving, SAGE Publications, 1977
Der gefährdete Frieden. Die militärische Überlegenheit der UdSSR ("Endangered Peace. The Military Superiority of the USSR"), München, 1977
National Attitudes and Behaviors (with G. Omen, S. W. Rhee, and P. Sybinsky), SAGE Publications, 1979
In the Minds of Men. Principles Toward Understanding and Waging Peace, Sogang University Press, 1984
Applied Factor Analysis, Northwestern University Press, 1988
Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder since 1917, Transaction Publishers, 1990
China's Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900, Transaction Publishers, 1991
The Conflict Helix: Principles & Practices of Interpersonal, Social & International Conflict & Cooperation, Transaction Publishers, 1991
Democide: Nazi Genocide and Mass Murder, Transaction Publishers, 1992
Death by Government, Transaction Publishers, 1997
Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900, Lit Verlag, 1999
Power Kills: Democracy as a Method of Nonviolence, Transaction Publishers, 2002
Never Again (series)
War and Democide, Llumina Press, 2004
Nuclear Holocaust, Llumina Press, 2004
Reset, Llumina Press, 2004
Red Terror, Llumina Press, 2004
Genocide, Llumina Press, 2005
Never Again?, Llumina Press, 2005
Never Again: Ending War, Democide, & Famine Through Democratic Freedom, nonfiction supplement, Llumina Press, 2005
The Blue Book of Freedom: Ending Famine, Poverty, Democide, and War, Cumberland House Publishing, 2007
Scholarly articles
Rummel had approximately 100 publications in peer-reviewed journals, including:
International Journal on World Peace, October–December 1986, III (4), contributor
Journal of International Relations, Spring 1978, 3 (1), contributor
Reason, July 1977, 9 (3), "The Problem of Defense", contributor
See also
Casualty recording
Stéphane Courtois
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Collection of essays on Rummel – edited by Nils Petter Gleditsch (2017)
Archive Blog Topical Outline – topic and theme index to Rummel's blog posts
Freedom's Peace archive – Rummel's blog (2004–2008)
Why This "A freedomists View" Blog? – Rummel's blog (2008–2013)
Why A New "Democratic Peace" Blog? – Rummel's blog (2008–2013)
Communist Body Count – chart of Rummel's estimates
Nazi Body Count – chart of Rummel's estimates
1932 births
2014 deaths
American people of German descent
American libertarians
American anti-communists
American male non-fiction writers
American political scientists
American political writers
Indiana University faculty
Northwestern University alumni
University of Hawaiʻi alumni
University of Hawaiʻi faculty
Yale University faculty
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedtime%20for%20Democracy
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Bedtime for Democracy
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Bedtime for Democracy is the fourth and final studio album by American punk rock band Dead Kennedys. Released in 1986, songs on this album cover common punk subjects often found in punk rock lyrics of the era such as conformity, Reaganomics, the U.S. military, and critique of the hardcore punk movement. The album's title refers to the 1951 comedy film, Bedtime for Bonzo starring Ronald Reagan and also reflects the band's weary bitterness from the trial they were undergoing at the time over the controversial art included with their previous album. By the time recording of Bedtime for Democracy had begun, the Dead Kennedys had already played what would be their last concert with Jello Biafra and announced their breakup immediately after the release of the record, whose opening track is a cover of David Alan Coe's "Take This Job and Shove It."
Track listing
Personnel
Dead Kennedys
Jello Biafra - lead vocals, producer, mixer
East Bay Ray - guitar
Klaus Flouride - bass, backing vocals
D.H. Peligro - drums, backing vocals
Additional performers
Tim Jones - synthesizer on "One-Way Ticket to Pluto"
Jayed Scotti - timbales on "Dear Abby"
Cal - backing vocals on "Fleshdunce", "Where Do Ya Draw The Line?" and "Chickenshit Conformist"
Andrew - backing vocals on "Fleshdunce", "Where Do Ya Draw The Line?" and "Chickenshit Conformist"
Blaze - backing vocals on "Fleshdunce", "Where Do Ya Draw The Line?" and "Chickenshit Conformist"
P. O'Pillage - the voice of Rambozo on "Rambozo The Clown", artwork
Production
John Cuniberti - engineer, mixer
Winston Smith - artwork
Charts
Related
The East Bay punk band Isocracy parodied the name in their 1988 EP, Bedtime for Isocracy. The cover art depicted the band together in a bed, accompanied by Jello Biafra. After the record's release, Isocracy split up, with two members forming the group Samiam and another joining Green Day.
Certifications
References
1986 albums
Alternative Tentacles albums
Dead Kennedys albums
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D.%20H.%20Peligro
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D. H. Peligro
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Darren Henley (born July 9, 1959), better known by his stage name D. H. Peligro, is an American punk rock musician, most commonly known as the drummer for the Dead Kennedys along with a brief stint as the drummer for Red Hot Chili Peppers.
Career
Dead Kennedys (1981–1986, 2001–2008, 2009–present)
Peligro joined the Dead Kennedys in February 1981, replacing original drummer, Ted, and made his recorded debut with the group on the EP In God We Trust, Inc. which was released in December of that year. He would go on to record the studio albums Plastic Surgery Disasters, Frankenchrist, and Bedtime for Democracy, as well as singles/rarities collection, Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death. The Dead Kennedys broke up in December 1986.
In 2001, the Dead Kennedys along with Peligro reunited without former frontman and primary songwriter Jello Biafra following a civil fraud complaint against Biafra, accusing him of withholding royalties. Biafra was ultimately convicted of fraud, malice and breach of contract, a verdict upheld on appeal before the California Supreme Court, and was ordered to pay $220,000 in actual and punitive damages. Dr. Know singer Brandon Cruz would replace Biafra on vocals and they played under the name "DK Kennedys" for a few concerts, but later reverted to "Dead Kennedys" permanently. Cruz left the band in May 2003 and was replaced by Jeff Penalty who left the band in 2008 and was replaced by Ron "Skip" Greer. Since reuniting the band has released recording from their last show with Biafra in 1986 titled Mutiny on the Bay and Live at the Deaf Club, a recording of a 1979 performance. In 2007, a best of album titled Milking the Sacred Cow was released and included two previously unreleased live songs.
In early 2008, Peligro took a hiatus from the Dead Kennedys, citing the need for time off from touring. The brief hiatus lasted until June 2009 when Peligro rejoined the band.
Red Hot Chili Peppers (1988)
In 1988, Peligro joined the Red Hot Chili Peppers replacing drummer Jack Irons. Guitarist Hillel Slovak had recently died of a heroin overdose and was replaced by guitarist DeWayne McKnight. Peligro had been friends with the band for years and even at one point was in a joke band called Three Little Butt Hairs with singer Anthony Kiedis and bassist Flea. McKnight was fired three shows into their tour in September 1988 and was replaced by John Frusciante. Peligro would last a bit longer than McKnight, helping to write some songs on the band's fourth album, Mother's Milk, which was released the following year, although Peligro did not perform on the album. Due to his ongoing drug and alcohol issues, the band decided to fire Peligro in November 1988. Peligro didn't handle his firing well; Flea said that he stayed in bed for days after making the decision to fire Peligro. Years later, Kiedis said firing Peligro was one of the toughest things the band ever had to do, although Kiedis became a major part of Peligro's road to sobriety, which began right after he was fired. Chad Smith replaced Peligro a few weeks later and has been with the band ever since.
Red Hot Chili Peppers were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on April 14, 2012. Peligro was not inducted with them.
Other bands
Peligro also played briefly with The Hellations, Jungle Studs, Nailbomb, The Feederz, Lock-Up, The Two Free Stooges and SSI. Peligro is the frontman for his band called Peligro (Spanish for "Danger") and has released three albums: Peligro (released in 1995 on Biafra's Alternative Tentacles record label, but deleted from the catalog in 2001), Welcome to America and Sum of Our Surroundings, which won Rock Album of the Year from the American Independent Music Awards. Peligro's sound is known to be an eclectic combination of punk, reggae, funk and heavy metal. D. H. Peligro has also fronted the bands Reverend Jones and the Cool Aid Choir and Al Sharpton's Hair and the Hellions. He appears as an interview subject in the 2003 documentary Afro-Punk.
Discography
Dead Kennedys
In God We Trust, Inc. (1981)
Plastic Surgery Disasters (1982)
Frankenchrist (1985)
Bedtime for Democracy (1986)
Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death (1987)
DMPO's on Broadway (2000)
Mutiny on the Bay (2001)
The Early Years Live (2001)
In God We Trust, Inc.: The Lost Tapes (2003)
Live at the Deaf Club (2004)
Milking the Sacred Cow (2007)
Original Singles Collection (2014)
Jungle Studs
Jungle Studs (1986)
Peligro
Peligro (1995)
Welcome To America (2000)
Sum Of Our Surroundings (2004)
Red Hot Chili Peppers
Mother's Milk (1989) (co-wrote "Sexy Mexican Maid", "Stone Cold Bush" and "Taste the Pain")
Nailbomb
Proud to Commit Commercial Suicide (1995) (drums on "Police Truck (Dead Kennedys Cover)", "Exploitation (Doom Cover)" and "World of Shit")
References
1959 births
Living people
Dead Kennedys members
Red Hot Chili Peppers members
American punk rock drummers
American male drummers
Musicians from St. Louis
African-American drummers
African-American rock musicians
Alternative Tentacles artists
20th-century American drummers
Lock Up (American band) members
Nailbomb members
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapti%20Zone
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Rapti Zone
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Rapti Zone ( ) was one of the fourteen zones, located in the Mid-Western Development Region of Nepal. It was named after the West Rapti River which drains Rolpa, Pyuthan and part of Dang districts. The remainder of Dang and part of Salyan district are drained by the Babai. The remainder of Salyan and all of Rukum districts are drained by the Bheri.
The headquarters of Rapti were Tulsipur and the largest city was Tribhuvannagar (Ghorahi). Other main cities and towns of Rapti zone were Pyuthan Khalanga, Bijuwar, Liwang, Lamahi, Musikot, Rukumkot (Shova) and Chaurjahari.
Administrative subdivisions
Rapti was divided into five districts; since 2015 the three eastern districts (and the eastern part of Rukum District) have been redesignated as part of Lumbini Province, while Salyan District and the western part of Rukum District have been redesignated as part of Karnali Province.
Geography
Dang District begins at the border with India. Since the border follows the southern edge of the Dudhwa Range—a subrange of the Siwaliks, here there is no Nepalese Outer Terai extending onto the main Indo-Gangetic Plain. Dang has two Inner Terai Valleys. Deukhuri lies beyond the Dudhwas, then a second low subrange—the Dang Range—separates Deukhuri from Dang Valley. Beyond Dang Valley the district extends to the crest of the higher Mahabharat Range.
The two valleys have abundant level and gently-sloping land with fair to good soil development, and abundant groundwater. Malaria made them nearly uninhabitable except to the Tharu ethnic group that had evolved resistance. In the 1960s DDT came into use to suppress the mosquito vectors and the way was open to settlers from the hills who used debt and lawsuits to displace and even enslave Tharus.
Dang is the most developed and most rapidly developing of the zone's five districts. Mahendra Highway, Nepal's main east-west route, follows Deukhuri Valley. Dang Valley has two important towns, Tribuvan nagar and Tulsipur, and an all-weather airport.
Pyuthan, Rolpa and Salyan Districts are in the Middle Hills extending north from the crest of the Mahabharat Range. Pyuthan has a rice-growing alluvial plain along Jhimruk Khola, surrounded by villages of rice-growing Bahun and Chhetri farmers served by bazaar towns of Newar merchants. Rolpa district mainly lies along Mardi Khola, the other large Rapti tributary that is more eroded into an inner gorge and less suited to traditional irrigation projects.
Pyuthan and Rolpa extend north to a rugged 3-4,000 meter ridgeline marking the limits of the Rapti Basin. Kham Magar live in Big Area throughout these highlands up to about 2,500 meters. They herd sheep, goats and cattle in high summer pastures as far north as the western Dhaulagiri Himalaya in Rukum district, moving south to the Mahabharat Range in winter. Kham also cultivate subtropical and temperate fruit trees such as mulberry, citrus and Asian pear as cash crops. Until it was outlawed in the 1970s they cultivated hemp and made hashish bought by government agents to be sold in monopoly stores. Termination of these arrangements increased Kham outmigration in search of employment and contributed to discontent with the Shah regime.
Salyan resembles Pyuthan in having a mix of rice-growing lowlands inhabited by caste Hindus, and uplands inhabited by Kham peoples. It is drained by the Babai and Bheri rivers.
Rukum is Rapi Zone's northernmost, most mountainous district including the western part of Dhaulagiri Himalaya drained by the Bheri River. At lower elevations it is populated by Hindu Khas people said to be ancestral to most of Nepal's Bahuns and Chhetris living further east. Kham Magars live higher up. A notable valley called Rukumkot lies near the district's geographical center.
Rapti Zone has a history of radical politics since the mid-20th century and in the 1990s became a center of the Maoist (maobadi) rebellion against the royal government and the fragile democracy that the late King Birendra eventually supported.
Economic development
Historically, geographic isolation inhibited economic development in Rapti Zone. Trans-himalayan trade routes lay to the east along the Kaligandaki River and to the west along the Bheri and Karnali. Compared to these, a hypothetical transhimalayan trade route through Rapti would have been impeded by a wide Inner Terai malarial belt, by ridges up to 4,000 meters exiting the Rapti watershed, then by the Dhaulagiri Himalayas and the only comparatively lower Kagmara and Tibetan border ranges before reaching the Tibetan Plateau.
Elsewhere in Nepal the Outer Terai began developing in the mid 1930s because the Rana dynasty sought limited industrial development and because development could easily spread from India across a border with little impediment. However, in Rapti Zone the border turned north to follow the base of the first range of foothills. Areas suited for development were confined to valleys beyond these low but rugged mountains. Furthermore, these valleys remained dangerously malarial until USAID began spraying DDT in 1954.
In Rapti's Middle Hills the only economic activity of interest to the government in Kathmandu was cottage hashish production from scattered plantings of Cannabis indica. Government agents carried marijuana and balls of charas to Kathmandu for retail and export to India. This trade ended in 1974 in response to U.S. pressure and inducements. USAID promoted temperate climate fruit and food crops as replacement cash crops, but this program failed due to lack of adequate transportation out of the hills. Otherwise there was limited local trade, no industry and hardly any agriculture beyond subsistence to tax, so the national government found little incentive for involvement in Rapti zone.
By the 1960s land-hungry hill people began to settle in the Dang and Deukhuri valleys and in the 1980s the east-west Mahendra Highway was built across the country, followed by spur roads south to Koilabas and north to Pyuthan, Rolpa, Dang Valley, Swargadwari and Salyan. This enabled ordinary Nepalis to reach the rest of the country in a day or two by inexpensive buses instead of by limited, expensive air service out of Dang airport or roundabout routes through India using trains and buses going east or west as well as several days on foot, so Rapti Zone's historic condition of isolation largely ended and then connection increased with the arrival of landline and cellular telephones, radio broadcasts and Internet.
The growing highway network replaced human porterage and greatly reduced transport costs. More goods were on sale locally, at lower prices. It also helped feed a diaspora sending Nepalese youth and fathers off to India, the Middle East, Europe and even the U.S. for employment and education. Another effect was to foster invidious comparison between increasing amenities of bazaar towns along the spur roads versus unchanged austerity in the hinterlands above that were mainly populated by Kham Magar janajatis. This added to historic grievances from government neglect and favoritism toward upper-caste hill Hindus, so Kham living in the highlands became ripe for recruitment by the Maobadi movement and the national government was virtually pushed out of Rolpa and Rukum during the 1996-2006 Nepalese Civil War.
See also
Development Regions of Nepal (Former)
List of zones of Nepal (Former)
List of districts of Nepal
House of Tulsipur
Zones of Nepal
2015 disestablishments in Nepal
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin%20Booth
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Edwin Booth
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Edwin Thomas Booth (November 13, 1833 – June 7, 1893) was an American actor who toured throughout the United States and the major capitals of Europe, performing Shakespearean plays. In 1869, he founded Booth's Theatre in New York. Some theatrical historians consider him the greatest American actor, and the greatest Prince Hamlet, of the 19th century. His achievements are often overshadowed by his relationship with his younger brother, actor John Wilkes Booth, who assassinated President Abraham Lincoln.
Early life
Booth was born in Bel Air, Maryland, into the Anglo-American theatrical Booth family. He was the son of the famous actor, Junius Brutus Booth, an Englishman, who named Edwin after Edwin Forrest and Thomas Flynn, two of Junius' colleagues. He was the elder brother of John Wilkes Booth, himself a successful actor who gained notoriety as the assassin of President Lincoln.
Nora Titone, in her book My Thoughts Be Bloody, recounts how the shame and ambition of Junius Brutus Booth's three actor sons, Junius Brutus Booth, Jr. (who never achieved the stage stardom of his two younger actor brothers), Edwin Booth, and John Wilkes Booth, spurred them to strive, as rivals, for achievement and acclaim—Edwin, a Unionist, and John Wilkes, a Confederate and the assassin of Abraham Lincoln.
Career
In early appearances, Booth usually performed alongside his father, making his stage debut as Tressel or Tressil in Colley Cibber's version of Richard III in Boston on September 10, 1849. His first appearance in New York City was in the character of Wilford in The Iron Chest, which he played at the National Theatre in Chatham Street, on the 27th of September 1850. A year later, on the illness of the father, the son took his place in the character of Richard III.
After his father's death in 1852, Booth went on a worldwide tour, visiting Australia and Hawaii, and finally gaining acclaim of his own during an engagement in Sacramento, California, in 1856.
Before his brother assassinated Lincoln, Edwin had appeared with his two brothers, John Wilkes and Junius Brutus Booth Jr., in Julius Caesar in 1864. John Wilkes played Marc Antony, Edwin played Brutus, and Junius played Cassius. It was a benefit performance, and the only time that the three brothers appeared together on the same stage. The funds were used to erect a statue of William Shakespeare that still stands in Central Park just south of the Promenade. Immediately afterwards, Edwin Booth began a production of Hamlet on the same stage, which came to be known as the "hundred nights Hamlet", setting a record that lasted until John Barrymore broke the record in 1922, playing the title character for 101 performances.
From 1863 to 1867, Booth managed the Winter Garden Theatre in New York City, mostly staging Shakespearean tragedies. In 1863, he bought the Walnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia.
After John Wilkes Booth's assassination of President Lincoln in April 1865, the infamy associated with the Booth name forced Edwin Booth to abandon the stage for many months. Edwin, who had been feuding with John Wilkes before the assassination, disowned him afterward, refusing to have John's name spoken in his house. He made his return to the stage at the Winter Garden Theatre in January 1866, playing the title role in Hamlet, which would eventually become his signature role.
Acting style
Edwin's acting style was distinctly different from that of his father. While the senior Booth was, like his contemporaries Edmund Kean and William Charles Macready, strong and bombastic, favoring characters such as Richard III, Edwin played more naturalistically, with a quiet, more thoughtful delivery, tailored to roles like Hamlet.
Later life
Booth was married to Mary Devlin from 1860 to 1863, the year of her death. They had one daughter, Edwina, born on December 9, 1861, in London. He later remarried, wedding his acting partner Mary McVicker in 1869, and became a widower again in 1881.
In 1869, Edwin acquired his brother John's body after repeatedly writing to President Andrew Johnson pleading for it. Johnson finally released the remains, and Edwin had them buried, unmarked, in the family plot at Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore.
In 1888, Booth founded The Players, a private club for performing, literary, and visual artists and their supporters, and dedicated his home on Gramercy Park to it.
His final performance was, fittingly, in his signature role of Hamlet, in 1891 at the Brooklyn Academy of Music.
Robert Lincoln rescue
Edwin Booth saved Abraham Lincoln's son, Robert, from serious injury or even death. The incident occurred on a train platform in Jersey City, New Jersey. The exact date of the incident is uncertain, but it is believed to have taken place in late 1864 or early 1865. Robert Lincoln recalled the incident in a 1909 letter to Richard Watson Gilder, editor of The Century Magazine.
The incident occurred while a group of passengers were late at night purchasing their sleeping car places from the conductor who stood on the station platform at the entrance of the car. The platform was about the height of the car floor, and there was of course a narrow space between the platform and the car body. There was some crowding, and I happened to be pressed by it against the car body while waiting my turn. In this situation the train began to move, and by the motion I was twisted off my feet, and had dropped somewhat, with feet downward, into the open space, and was personally helpless, when my coat collar was vigorously seized and I was quickly pulled up and out to a secure footing on the platform. Upon turning to thank my rescuer I saw it was Edwin Booth, whose face was of course well known to me, and I expressed my gratitude to him, and in doing so, called him by name.
Booth did not know the identity of the man whose life he had saved until some months later, when he received a letter from a friend, Colonel Adam Badeau, who was an officer on the staff of General Ulysses S. Grant. Badeau had heard the story from Robert Lincoln, who had since joined the Union Army and was also serving on Grant's staff. In the letter, Badeau gave his compliments to Booth for the heroic deed. The fact that he had saved the life of Abraham Lincoln's son was said to have been of some comfort to Edwin Booth following his brother's assassination of the president.
Booth's Theatre
In 1867, a fire damaged the Winter Garden Theatre, resulting in the building's subsequent demolition. Afterwards, Booth built his own theatre, an elaborate structure called Booth's Theatre in Manhattan, which opened on February 3, 1869, with a production of Romeo and Juliet starring Booth as Romeo, and Mary McVicker as Juliet. Elaborate productions followed, but the theatre never became a profitable or even stable financial venture. The panic of 1873 caused the final bankruptcy of Booth's Theatre in 1874. After the bankruptcy, Booth went on another worldwide tour, eventually regaining his fortune.
Boothden
In 1879 Booth purchased land in Middletown, Rhode Island on the Sakonnet River; he hired Calvert Vaux, whose son Downing Vaux was (briefly) engaged to Booth’s daughter Edwina, to design a grand summer cottage estate there. "Boothden" was completed in 1884, a wooden house set on a stone foundation, designed in the Queen Anne Revival style with Stick style motifs and large plate glass windows. Boothden featured a dance hall, stables, boathouse, and a windmill folly with a henhouse at its base. Booth enjoyed ten years at Boothden, willing it to Edwina on his death in 1893. After Edwina sold Boothden in 1903, the house passed through a series of owners, and saw a full restoration in 2017.
Death
Edwin Booth had a small stroke in 1891, which precipitated his decline. He suffered another stroke in April 1893 and died June 7, 1893, in his apartment in The Players clubhouse. He was buried next to his first wife at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His bedroom in the club has been kept untouched since his death. The New York Times reported his death.
Exhumation request
In December 2010, descendants of Edwin Booth reported that they obtained permission to exhume the Shakespearean actor's body to obtain DNA samples to compare with a sample of his brother John's DNA to refute the rumor he had escaped after the assassination. However, Bree Harvey, a spokesperson from the Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where Edwin Booth is buried, denied reports that the family had contacted them and requested to exhume Edwin's body. The family hopes to obtain DNA samples from artifacts belonging to John Wilkes, or from remains such as vertebrae stored at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Maryland. On March 30, 2013, museum spokesperson Carol Johnson announced that the family's request to extract DNA from the vertebrae had been rejected.
Dramatizations
A number of modern dramatizations have been made of Edwin Booth's life, on both stage and screen. One of the best known is the 1955 film Prince of Players written by Moss Hart, based loosely on the popular book of that name by Eleanor Ruggles. It was directed by Philip Dunne and stars Richard Burton and Raymond Massey as Edwin and Junius Brutus Booth, Sr., with Charles Bickford and Eva Le Gallienne, the latter of whom plays Gertrude to Burton's Hamlet. The film depicts events in Booth's life well before, and then surrounding, the assassination of Lincoln by Booth's younger brother.
The opening scenes of Prince of Players are very similar to scenes in the earlier 1946 John Ford western My Darling Clementine. In that movie, the character of Granville Thorndyke (as acted by Alan Mowbray) is an obvious nod to Booth's father Junius, and the scenes portray essentially the same sequence where the great actor has to be retrieved from a bar and dragged back to the theatre where he is overdue to give a performance in front of a restless audience.
The Brothers BOOTH!, by W. Stuart McDowell, which focuses on the relationships of the three Booth brothers leading up to the assassination of Lincoln, was workshopped and given a series of staged readings featuring David Strathairn, David Dukes, Angela Goethals, Maryann Plunkett, and Stephen Lang at the New Harmony Project, and at The Guthrie Theatre Lab in Minneapolis, and later presented in New York at the Players' Club, the Second Stage Theatre, and the Boston Athenaeum. It was given its first fully staged professional production at the Bristol Riverside Theatre outside Philadelphia in 1992. A second play by the same name, The Brothers Booth, which focuses on "the world of the 1860s theatre and its leading family" was written by Marshell Bradley and staged in New York at the Perry Street Theatre in 2004.
Austin Pendleton's play, Booth, which depicts the early years of the brothers Edwin, Junius, and John Wilkes Booth and their father, was produced off Broadway at the York Theatre, starring Frank Langella as Junius Brutus Booth, Sr. In a review, the play was called "a psychodrama about the legendary theatrical family of the 19th century" by The New York Times. Pendleton had adapted this version from his earlier work, Booth Is Back, produced at Long Wharf Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut, in the 1991-1992 season.
The Tragedian, by playwright and actor Rodney Lee Rogers, is a one-man show about Booth that was produced by PURE Theatre of Charleston, South Carolina, in 2007. It was revived for inclusion in the Piccolo Spoleto Arts Festival in May and June 2008.
A play by Luigi Creatore called Error of the Moon played off-Broadway on Theatre Row in New York City from August 13 to October 10, 2010. The play is a fictionalized account of Booth's life, hinging on the personal, professional, and political tensions between brothers Edwin and John Wilkes, leading up to the assassination of Lincoln.
In 1959, the actor Robert McQueeney played Booth in the episode "The Man Who Loved Lincoln" on the ABC/Warner Brothers western television series, Colt .45, starring Wayde Preston as the fictitious undercover agent Christopher Colt, who in the story line is assigned to protect Booth from a death threat.
In 1960, the anthology series television series Death Valley Days broadcast "His Brother's Keeper", in which Booth visits a small town after the Lincoln assassination, with one of the town's influential citizens trying to have him run out of town.
In 1966, Martin Landau played Edwin Booth in the episode "This Stage of Fools" of the NBC western television series, Branded, starring Chuck Connors as Jason McCord. In the story line, McCord takes a job as the bodyguard to the actor Edwin Booth, brother of the presidential assassin, John Wilkes Booth.
In 2013, Will Forte played Edwin Booth in the "Washington, D.C." episode of the Comedy Central's series, Drunk History, created by Derek Waters.
In 2014, Edwin Booth was played by Gordon Tanner in The Pinkertons episode, "The Play's the Thing" (S1:E3). In the episode, both the "Hundred nights Hamlet" and Edwin's rescue of Robert Lincoln are mentioned.
Legacy
Booth left a considerable estate upon his death. He left charitable bequests that furthered the development of the acting profession and the treatment of mental illness. He left bequests of $5,000 each (almost $150,000 in 2021 dollars) to the Actor's' Fund, the Actors' Association of Friendship of the City of New York (Edwin Forrest Lodge), The Actors' Association of Friendship of the City of Philadelphia (Shakespeare Lodge), the Asylum Fund of New York and the Home for Incurables (West Farms, New York). Other examples of his legacy include:
The Players still exists in its original clubhouse at 16 Gramercy Park South in Manhattan. A statue of Booth as Hamlet, by Edmond T. Quinn, has been the centerpiece of the private Gramercy Park since 1916. It can be seen by the public through the south gate of the park.
Booth left a few recordings of his voice preserved on wax cylinder. One of them can be heard on the Naxos Records set Great Historical Shakespeare Recordings and Other Miscellany. Another place to hear his preserved voice is on the site shown here [3:34] Booth's voice is barely audible with all the surface noise, but what can be deciphered reveals it to have been rich and deep.
Memorials of Booth can still be found around Bel Air, Maryland. In front of the courthouse is a fountain dedicated to his memory. Inside the post office is a portrait of him. Also, his family's home, Tudor Hall, still stands and was bought in 2006 by Harford County, Maryland, to become a museum.
A chamber in Mammoth Cave in Kentucky is called "Booth's Amphitheatre" – so called because Booth entertained visitors there.
The Springer Opera House in Columbus, Georgia, is said to be haunted by the ghost of Edwin Booth.
Broadway's Booth Theatre was the first, and remains the oldest, Broadway theatre to be named in honor of an actor.
Stephen Sondheim's musical Assassins mentions Edwin in "The Ballad of Booth" with the lyrics: "Your brother made you jealous, John/You couldn't fill his shoes."
Edwin Booth is a member of the American Theater Hall of Fame.
The Edwin Booth Family Collection archives are held in the University Library at California State University, Northridge.
See also
"Edwin Booth", by Edmund Clarence Stedman from Genius, and other essays (1911)
List of show business families
Asia Booth, his sister
Legitimacy (family law)
References
Further reading
Watermeier, Daniel J. HardcoverAmerican Tragedian: The Life of Edwin Booth (2014)
External links
Booth-Grossman family papers, 1840–1953, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
Letters and observations to his daughter and friends
The memory palace podcast episode about Edwin Booth.
Edwin Booth: Broadway Photographs(Univ. of South Carolina)
Edwin Booth once graced Bloomington stage – Pantagraph (Bloomington, Illinois newspaper)
The voice of Booth, reading Othello
19th-century American male actors
American male stage actors
American male Shakespearean actors
Male actors from Maryland
Actor-managers
1833 births
1893 deaths
People from Bel Air, Maryland
American people of English descent
Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees
Edwin
People from Gramercy Park
19th-century theatre managers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Bay%20Ray
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East Bay Ray
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Raymond John Pepperell (born November 17, 1958), better known by his stage name East Bay Ray, is an American musician best known as the guitarist for the San Francisco Bay area-based punk band Dead Kennedys. His guitar work was heavily influenced by surf music, jazz and rockabilly. Alongside Jello Biafra's astute lyrics and unique vibrato-based vocal style, East Bay Ray's playing was one of the defining factors of the music of the Dead Kennedys, and by extension, of the "second wave" of American punk. He is also the only Dead Kennedy to remain a constant member of the band since its formation.
Early life and education
Raymond John Pepperell was born and raised in the San Francisco Bay area and was musically influenced by both his parents, who organized local art and music festivals in their suburban neighborhood. His father had a collection of 1930s and 1940s jazz and blues records, and would take him and his brother to performances by Muddy Waters, the Count Basie Orchestra and Lightnin' Hopkins. His mother was a fan of the Weavers and Pete Seeger. His parents, who were also active in the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, also influenced him politically. Ray graduated from the University of California, Berkeley and planned to become an architect, but found architecture too artistically limiting. By this time, he had already began writing and playing music as he realized that he could not live without it.
Career
Before the Dead Kennedys, East Bay Ray played guitar with a San Francisco Bay Area based rockabilly/doo-wop bar band Cruisin', releasing one single, "Vicky's Hickey", sold primarily at their shows.
The Dead Kennedys were a notably idiosyncratic punk rock band. Although they kept their music for the most part loud, fast, and aggressive, they threw in eclectic flourishes that were easy for casual listeners to miss. These experiments were represented most prominently in the guitar playing of East Bay Ray, who took cues from sources such as film music (spy movie scores and Ennio Morricone Spaghetti Western scores), instrumental surf rock (the guitar stylings of Dick Dale and George Tomsco of The Fireballs), as well as the psychedelic music of the 60s (especially early Pink Floyd) with his trademark echo effects. With help from Jello Biafra and Klaus Flouride, East Bay Ray crafted a distinct and driving guitar style and sound.
In interviews East Bay Ray has cited the playing of Syd Barrett on Pink Floyd's first album The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, as well as the music of the Ohio Players, and the guitar playing of Elvis Presley side-man Scotty Moore (with his trademark echo), as influences. East Bay Ray claims that he has never been consciously influenced by surf music, and attributes the recognizable elements of surf in the Kennedys music to "having grown up in California," although it could certainly be the influence of Klaus Flouride or Jello Biafra. East Bay Ray's fondness for Spaghetti Western music is evidenced by a 7" single he recorded in 1984 called "Trouble in Town"/"Poison Heart."
After Dead Kennedys stopped touring in February 1986, East Bay Ray formed the band Kage with female vocalist Bana Witt. He played guitar on a range of projects including an Algerian Raï music album for Cheikha Rimitti called Sidi Mansour, which also featured Red Hot Chili Peppers bassist Flea (coincidentally, D.H. Peligro later became a drummer for RHCP for a short time) and Robert Fripp, to garage-pop with Pearl Harbor, retro-jungle-surf with Johnny Feelings, and exotica lounge music with Frenchy. He composed and recorded a sound track for an early independent film by David Siegel and Scott McGhee, who later made the film noir movie The Deep End. In the early 1990s, Ray formed the funk/rock band Skrapyard and released Sex is Sex on Alternative Tentacles featuring Ron West, Robert Ball, Andy Kaps and Jason Collins. In 2000, Ray appeared on Hed PE's second studio album, Broke, performing guitar on the song "Waiting to Die".
East Bay Ray was involved in all the Dead Kennedys' early studio recordings and is credited for mixing and producing the band's first single, "California Uber Alles"/"Man with the Dogs", the band's first LP Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables with Oliver Dicicco, the EP In God We Trust, Inc. and he mixed "Holiday in Cambodia"/"Police Truck". Ray was one of the founders of the original Alternative Tentacles Records, set up for other artists and Dead Kennedys, and was a partner in it until the mid-1980s. Ray recently mixed and produced two CDs of live Dead Kennedys recordings, Mutiny on the Bay and Live at the Deaf Club.
Starting in 2001, East Bay Ray headed the legal struggle to win ownership of Dead Kennedys' intellectual property and to secure royalties withheld from the band by Jello Biafra. Biafra was found civilly liable for fraud, malice and breach of contract. Ray authorized and had a production credit for a CD of live Dead Kennedys recordings titled Mutiny on the Bay. East Bay Ray was responsible, along with his ex-bandmates Klaus Flouride and D.H. Peligro, for licensing songs such as "Police Truck" and "Holiday in Cambodia" to major corporations for use in video games and films. Dead Kennedys, including Biafra, had previously approved the use of the band's songs in the major film corporation releases Neighbors (1981), and Class (1983). In 1999, Biafra himself approved the license to Tony Hawk's video game.
Ray was a featured artist in the April 2006 edition of Guitar Player magazine talking about recording production techniques and in the January 2006 issue of Guitar World.
Ray guests on the track "Guitar Hero" on The Dresden Dolls lead singer/pianist Amanda Palmer's solo debut, Who Killed Amanda Palmer.
Ray also released the 7" single Trouble in Town in 1984 (Alternative Tentacles Records), featuring the songs "Poisoned Heart" and "Trouble in Town", with guest vocalists Vince and Steve One.
The origin of his nickname as East Bay Ray comes from an advertisement sent out for band members which he signed with that name only, leading to the initial lineup of The Dead Kennedys and to his nickname.
References
External links
2007 interview with East Bay Ray
Dead Kennedys members
1958 births
Living people
American punk rock guitarists
Musicians from Oakland, California
Alternative Tentacles artists
Alternative Tentacles
Guitarists from California
American male guitarists
20th-century American guitarists
University of California, Berkeley alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sado%20Province
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Sado Province
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was a province of Japan until 1871; since then, it has been a part of Niigata Prefecture. It was sometimes called or . It lies on the eponymous Sado Island, off the coast of Niigata Prefecture (or in the past, Echigo Province).
Sado was famous for the silver and gold mined on the island. In the Kamakura Period, the province was granted to the Honma clan from Honshū, and they continued to dominate Sado until 1589, when Uesugi Kagekatsu of Echigo Province took over the island. The Tokugawa shōguns later made Sado a personal fief after Sekigahara, and assumed direct control of its mines.
Since 2004 Sado city has comprised the entire island.
History
Historical districts
Niigata Prefecture
Hamochi District (羽茂郡) - merged with Kamo and Sawata Districts to become Sado District (佐渡郡) on April 1, 1896
Kamo District (賀茂郡) - merged with Hamochi and Sawata Districts to become Sado District on April 1, 1896
Sawata District (雑太郡) - merged with Hamochi and Kamo Districts to become Sado District on April 1, 1896
Notes
References
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128
External links
Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Former provinces of Japan
Hokuriku region
States and territories disestablished in 1871
1871 disestablishments in Japan
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356343
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagami%20Province
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Sagami Province
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was a province of Japan located in what is today the central and western Kanagawa Prefecture. Sagami bordered on Izu, Musashi, Suruga Provinces; and had access to the Pacific Ocean through Sagami Bay. However, most of the present-day cities of Yokohama and Kawasaki, now part of Kanagawa Prefecture, were not in Sagami, but rather, in Musashi Province. Its abbreviated form name was .
History
Sagami was one of the original provinces of Japan established in the Nara period under the Taihō Code. The area has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Although remnants from the Japanese Paleolithic and Yayoi periods are scarce, remains from the Jōmon period are relatively plentiful. Kofun period remains are generally from the 1st – 4th centuries AD. Whether or not Sagami was originally part of Musashi prior to the Nara period is still a topic of controversy.
The original capital of the province may have been located in what is now Hiratsuka, although other contenders include Ōiso and Ebina. Of all the former provinces of Japan, Sagami is the only in which the ruins of the Nara period capital have yet to be found. The Kokubun-ji is located in what is now Ebina. Under the Engishiki classification system, Sagami was ranked as a "major country" (上国, jōkoku) in terms of importance and a "faraway country" (遠国, ongoku), in terms of distance from the capital. It was also included as one of the Tōkaidō provinces and was governed by a Kuni no miyatsuko.
Samukawa jinja was designated as the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) for the province.
Records of Sagami during the Heian period are sparse, but during this period large shōen controlled by various warrior-class clans developed. The Miura clan was one of the most powerful of these clans. During the Kamakura period, Sagami was the center of the Kamakura shogunate, based in Kamakura, founded by Minamoto no Yoritomo and subsequently controlled by his former stewards, the Hōjō clan.
The province came under the control of the Uesugi clan for much of the Sengoku period, and was a highly contested territory, before the consolidation under the rule of the Later Hōjō clan based at Odawara. After the defeat of the Later Hōjō clan at the hands of Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1590, Sagami was part of the territory in the Kantō region which came under the rule of Tokugawa Ieyasu. With the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate, the western portion of the province formed Odawara Domain, and the remainder of the province was tenryō territory under direct administrative control of the Tokugawa shogunate, ruled though a number of hatamoto administrators. A number of feudal domains from outside Sagami Province also had small scattered holdings within the province.
During the Edo period, Sagami prospered due to its location on the Tōkaidō road connecting Edo with Kyoto, and numerous post towns developed. Uraga, at the entrance to Edo Bay was a major maritime security checkpoint for ships entering or leaving the Shogunate capital. However, the 1703 Genroku earthquake caused severe damage to Odawara, destroying much of Odawara-juku. This was followed by further natural disasters, including the October 4, 1707 Hōei earthquake and the Hōei eruption of Mount Fuji in December of the same year.
During the Bakumatsu period, Kurihama in southern Miura Peninsula was the location of the first landing of American Commodore Matthew C. Perry and his fleet of black ships in 1853, which led eventually to the Treaty of Kanagawa, which opened Sagami to foreign visitation and led to the rapid development of Yokohama as a treaty port.
After the Meiji Restoration, Sagami Province was reorganized in 1871 into Odarawa, Ongino-Yamanaka, Karasuyama, Mito, Sakura, Oyumi, Mutsuura and Nishi-Ohira Prefectures. All for former Sagami Province became part of the new Kanagawa Prefecture in 1876.
Historical districts
Kanagawa Prefecture
Aikō District (愛甲郡)
Ashigarakami District (Upper Ashigara) (足柄上郡)
Ashigarashimo District (Lower Ashigara) (足柄下郡)
Kamakura District (鎌倉郡) - dissolved
Kōza District (高座郡)
Miura District (三浦郡)
Ōsumi District (大住郡) - merged with Yurugi District to become Naka District (中郡) on March 26, 1896
Tsukui District (津久井郡) - dissolved
Yurugi District (淘綾郡) - merged with Ōsumi District to become Naka District on March 26, 1896
Bakumatsu period domains
Highways
Tōkaidō – connecting Edo with Kyoto
See also
Shōnan, common name for Sagami Province's Sagami Bay coastline
Notes
References
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128
Papinot, Edmond. (1910). Historical and Geographic Dictionary of Japan. Tokyo: Librarie Sansaisha. OCLC 77691250
External links
Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Former provinces of Japan
1871 disestablishments in Japan
States and territories disestablished in 1871
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sait%C5%8D%20Tatsuoki
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Saitō Tatsuoki
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was a daimyō in Mino Province during the Sengoku period and the third generation lord of the Saitō clan. He was a son of Saitō Yoshitatsu. His mother was daughter of Azai Hisamasa and nephew of Azai Nagamasa, a grandson of Saitō Dōsan. He was also a nephew of Oda Nobunaga's first wife, Nohime, herself a daughter of Saitō Dōsan.
Saitō Tatsuoki succeeded his father at the age of 19. He was, however, an incapable ruler; unlike his father and grandfather.
Tatsuoki became involved in a bitter rivalry with Akechi Mitsuhide, and lost to him decisively in 1564. He survived, but from this point on the Saitō clan were no longer a significant faction in the power struggles of the Sengoku period.
After Oda Nobunaga conquered the Saito in 1567, he was exiled, though there are at least two accounts of how he managed this. In one account, Tatsuoki abandoned the castle the night before the final attack, took a boat, and fled down the Sunomata River. In another account, following the breach of the main gate, Hideyoshi dispatched a messenger to the main tower, where Tatsuoki and his entourage were cornered, with assurances of leniency if the Saitō holdouts would surrender. Tatsuoki accepted the offer and, with Nobunaga's troops forming two lines, Tatsuoki marched out of the main tower with his family and retinue. In any event, Tatsuoki eventually found his way to Nagashima, Ise Province. He lived in exile for a while, but eventually sought refuge with Asakura Yoshikage. He was killed in the Battle of Tonezaka, at the age of 25, in 1573.
See also
Akaza Shichirōemon - vassal of Saitō Tatsuoki
References
1548 births
1573 deaths
Daimyo
Tatsuoki
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356349
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakuma%20Morimasa
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Sakuma Morimasa
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was the son of Sakuma Moritsugu, cousin of Sakuma Nobumori, a prominent Oda retainer to Oda Nobuhide and Oda Nobunaga. After several campaigns in which he had fought, he was given the nickname oni-genba which literally means "Demon Genba", Genba being his middle name.
Morimasa was born in what is now Shōwa-ku, Nagoya (situated in contemporary Aichi District, Owari Province), He was a retainer of Shibata Katsuie and one of his top generals in many of his campaigns. Morimasa was given the former Ikko Sect fortress Oyama Gobo in the Kaga prefecture by Oda Nobunaga; the fortress was subsequently named Oyama Castle in 1580 but went on to become Kanazawa Castle.
After the betrayal of Akechi Mitsuhide which led to the death of both Oda Nobunaga and his heir Oda Nobutada, Morimasa sided with Shibata Katsuie over making Oda Nobutaka (the third son of Nobunaga) as heir to the Oda clan whereas Hashiba Hideyoshi (later Toyotomi Hideyoshi) supported Lord Sanboshi. Sanboshi was the heir to Oda Nobutada and was still an infant at that time. This argument led to the split of the Oda clan retainers into the two main factions led by Shibata Katsuie and Hashiba Hideyoshi.
Armies of the two factions eventually came to war.
Battle of Shizugatake
In 1583, Morimasa led an offensive force against Takayama Ukon in Iwasakiyama.
Morimasa then proceeded against Shibata Katsuie's orders, killing Nakagawa Kiyohide in the early stages of the battle of Shizugatake. However, He ignoring Shibata Katsuie orders to fall back and led to his defeat as Toyotomi Hideyoshi's forces approached the next morning. Morimasa was captured and beheaded.
The charge by Morimasa was the spark necessary for the battle of Shizugatake where Hideyoshi's troops were able to suppress any resistance led by Maeda Toshiie and prevented the support of Sassa Narimasa and Takigawa Kazumasu.
In all, Hideyoshi's troops swelled to 120,000 whereas Shibata Katsuie's troops had only reached 25,000. This eventually forced Shibata Katsuie to commit seppuku along with his wife Lady Oichi (younger sister of Nobunaga) following the betrayal of Maeda Toshiie.
References
1554 births
1583 deaths
Samurai
People executed by Japan by decapitation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakuma%20Sh%C5%8Dzan
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Sakuma Shōzan
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sometimes called Sakuma Zōzan, was a Japanese politician and scholar of the Edo period.
Biography
Born Sakuma Kunitada, he was the son of a samurai and scholar and his wife , and a native of (or Shinano Province) in present day's Nagano Prefecture. At the age of 23, he went to Edo and for 10 years studied Chinese learning ().
He then started to study Western sciences ("rangaku") at the age of 33, with the help of the rangaku scholar Kurokawa Ryōan (). In 1844, he obtained the Huishoudelyk Woordboek", a Dutch translation of Nöel Chomel's encyclopedia, from which Sakuma learned how to make glass, and then magnets, thermometers, cameras and telescopes. The encyclopedia was later translated into Japanese by Utagawa Genshin () under the title .
In 1849, he learned about electricity, through the book of the Dutch scientist Van den Bergh, and created Japan's first telegraph, five years before the gift of such a telegraph by Commodore Perry in 1854. He also invented electric machines derived from the Elekiter.
From 1842, following an analysis of the defeat of China against Great Britain in the First Opium War and the spread of Western influence in Asia, Sakuma actively proposed the introduction of Western military methods to the Bakufu and the establishment of maritime defense, through his book "Eight policies for the defense of the sea" (). After the Bakufu ordered Japanese translations of the Military History of the Qing dynasty (, Shèngwu Ji) and the Illustrated Treatise on the Maritime Kingdoms written by Chinese scholar Wei Yuan (17941857), Sakuma was struck by the similarities in their ideas in defending against the west. His writing brought some fame, and he became the teacher of several future leaders of modernization (Yoshida Shōin, Katsu Kaishū, Sakamoto Ryōma, Nakaoka Shintarō, Hashimoto Sanai, Katō Hiroyuki, Nishimura Shigeki, Yamamoto Kakuma).
In 1853, when Yoshida Shōin was convicted for attempting to stow away on one of Perry's ships, Sakuma was also sentenced by association to house arrest (), which he endured for 9 years. During the arrest, he continued to study Western sciences, and developed various electric machines based on the elekiter and the Daniell battery, Japan's first seismometer, as well as improvements to guns. After his release, Sakuma Shozan emphasized that the only solution to the country's conflicts was to move the Imperial court from Kyoto to Hikone Castle, and continued to advocate opening Japanese ports to foreign traders, as well as reinforcing the Bakufu through collaboration with the Imperial administration (Kōbu gattai).
Assassination
In July 1864, Shōzan, followed by a few of his retainers, were on their way to Kyoto on horseback. Shōzan's horse was mounted with a European saddle, and he possessed a copy of the imperial decree about the opening of the country's ports to foreign trade. He was on a mission to meet with a member of the imperial family to explain his ideas and to seek the permission of Emperor Kōmei to legally open Japanese ports to foreign trade. He was unable to meet with the member of the imperial family and decided to return from his failed visit.
On August 12, 1864, as he reached the Sanyo-kiya-cho district, his retainers, a considerable distance behind and making no effort to catch up with him, failed to notice that two mysterious men were following him on foot. Soon Shōzan was ambushed and attacked by a small group of assassins from the Higo and Oki clans in broad daylight. Shōzan fell from his horse and bled profusely from the attack, with the assassins approaching him with swords drawn. Shōzan was killed by one of the assassins, a hitokiri named Kawakami Gensai, who landed a death blow on him. Upon his death, the assassins immediately fled from the scene before his retainers arrived. Shōzan was later found to have thirteen wounds inflicted on him by the assassins.
Shortly after the incident, at Tenryu-ji, Kyoto, Kawakami Gensai told his confederates, "It was the first time I actually felt I'd killed someone; the hair on my head stood on end because he was the greatest man of all time."
On the day following Shōzan's death, a sign was put up at the main gate of Gion Shrine explaining the reason for the killing:
Family
Shōzan kept at least two mistresses, with one whose name was Ochō bore his only son on 6 December 1848. Later at the age of 42 he married Katsu Kaishū's 16-year-old younger sister Katsu Junko in 1853.
His son , real name Sakuma Kakujirō, was a member of the Shinsengumi, which he joined in September 1864 to avenge his father's death.
Legacy
Sakuma Shōzan coined the phrase "Eastern ethics, Western technical learning" (, ) which was later further abbreviated as "Japanese spirit, Western technique" (, ). This latter slogan is still in use as a description of the way that Japan ought to handle modernization.
The Shōzan Shrine was established in 1938 at Matsushiromachi Matsushiro, Nagano, with the 2 storey which was later built nearby.
A memorial bearing his likeness was erected near his assassination site, along Kiyamachi Road along the banks of the Takasegawa River at Kyoto.
A bronze statue of Sakuma Shōzan named was erected at Kawanakajima, Nagano and unveiled on June 2, 1959 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the opening of the Port of Yokohama.
Another statue of Sakuma Shōzan mounted on the horse, also named was erected at the Shōzan Shrine to commemorate the 200th anniversary of his birth.
The University of Nagano
The , a public university located in Nagano, Nagano, which opened in 2018, named its dormitory, Zozan Dormitory (, ) at its () after Sakuma Shōzan.
In addition, Sakuma is the name of the student-made, student resource guide at the University of Nagano; and Zōzangaku is a required course for first-year students in the Global Management Department at the university in which students hear from entrepreneurs, government officials, and others, about special innovations and initiatives.
Notes
External links
National Diet Library photos and biography
1811 births
1864 deaths
People from Nagano Prefecture
Assassinated Japanese politicians
People murdered in Japan
Japanese inventors
Deified Japanese people
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Sanada Masayuki
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was a Japanese Sengoku period lord and daimyō. He was the head of Sanada clan, a regional house of Shinano Province, which became a vassal of the Takeda clan of Kai Province.
Along with his father and brothers, Masayuki served the Takeda clan during its heyday, when it was led by Takeda Shingen. After its downfall, Masayuki took the lead of his clan and, despite little power, he managed to establish himself as an independent daimyō under the Toyotomi regime through skillful political maneuvers amidst the powerful Tokugawa, Hojō and Uesugi clans.
Known for having defeated the powerful Tokugawa army in the Battle of Kami river and Siege of Ueda, Masayuki is now considered one of the greatest military strategists of his era. In recent times, a number of portrayals in novels, films and other forms of media have contributed to his increased popularity.
Early life
He was born the third son of Sanada Yukitaka in 1547, but the exact date is unknown. His childhood name was Gengorō (源五郎). At birth, he had no right to succeed his father because of his two older brothers, Nobutsuna and Masateru.
In 1553, at seven years old, he was sent to the Takeda clan's headquarters in Kai as a hostage. There he becomes part of the Okukinjūshū (奥近習衆), a group of six young servants close to Takeda Shingen. According to the Kōyō Gunkan, Shingen favoured him as he soon recognized that Masayuki's talents and insight rivaled those of his father Yukitaka. As such, he is sometimes included among the Twenty Four Generals, alongside his father and two older brothers.
In 1558, he became the foster son of the Mutō family, a branch of the Ōi clan, of which Shingen's mother descended from, and adopted the name Mutō Kihei (武藤喜兵衛).
Service under Takeda
Towards 1564, he married Yamanote-dono (山手殿), a daughter of Uda Yoritada, who was a local lord of Tōtōmi Province. Later she gave birth to his two sons Nobuyuki and Nobushige. During this period, he participated in many battles under the Takeda clan, including the Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima (1561) and the Battle of Mimasetōge (1569). Also most importantly, from 1572 onwards, he joined Shingen in his campaign towards Kyoto against the Oda and Tokugawa clans and took part in the Battle of Mikatagahara (1573).
In May 1573, Shingen died amidst his campaign and so Masayuki continued to serve his heir Takeda Katsuyori.
In 1574, his father Yukitaka died. At that point, his eldest brother Sanada Nobutsuna had already succeeded his father as the head of the Sanada clan. However, during the disastrous Battle of Nagashino (1575) against the Oda clan, both his older brothers, Nobutsuna and Masateru, were killed, so he came back to Sanada clan and claimed his inheritance. In this, Masayuki supposedly had the support of Kōsaka Masanobu, who held Kaizu Castle in Northern Shinano and was also a chief retainer of the Takeda clan. Katsuyori accepted his claim without any qualms.
In 1579, a year after Uesugi Kenshin's death, an alliance between the Takeda and Uesugi clans was established. The following year, ordered by Takeda Katsuyori, Masayuki invaded western Kōzuke, which was a Hojō domain at the time, and seized Numata Castle, putting it under control of the Takeda clan. The same year, he was appointed the title of Awa-no-kami (従五位下・安房守).
In 1581, he was ordered by Katsuyori to supervise the construction of the new Shinpu Castle at Nirasaki. In the same year, Numata Kageyoshi, former lord of Numata Castle, attempted to retake his old fief, but Masayuki schemed to assassinate him and thwarted his plans.
In April 1582, Oda and Tokugawa allied forces started an invasion of the Takeda territory. It is said that Masayuki had intended to shelter Katsuyori and advised him to abandon Kai Province and flee towards Sanada's domain in Kōzuke(Iwabitsu Castle). Instead, Katsuyori decided to take shelter at Oyamada Nobushige's Iwadono Castle, but was betrayed and ultimately died at Tenmokuzan.
After the fall of the Takeda clan, Masayuki yielded to Oda Nobunaga and was put under the orders of one of Nobunaga's chief commanders, Takigawa Kazumasu. Masayuki managed to retain most of his domain, but had to abdicate Numata Castle to Takigawa Masushigue, Kazumasu's relative.
Tenshō-Jingo Conflict
However, Nobunaga soon died at the Incident at Honnō-ji on June 21, 1582. Upon Nobunaga's death, Oda clan's grasp over former Takeda territories weakened. Amidst the chaos, Oda retainers who were assigned by Nobunaga to govern those territories, such as Mori Nagayoshi and Kawajiri Hidetaka amongst others, either fled or were killed by local insurrection. Seeing this, neighboring Tokugawa, Hōjō and Uesugi clans all started to contest this vacuum of power in Shinano, Kōzuke and Kai provinces. This was called the Tenshō-Jingo Conflict.
On July 5, Takigawa Kazumasu lost decisively against the invading Hōjō army at the Battle of Kannagawa. In that occasion, Masayuki actually escorted back Kazumasu's remaining forces through Suwa, in Shinano. Though, seeing this chance, Masayuki sent his uncle Yazawa Yoritsuna and took back Numata Castle. Also, he put his oldest son Nobuyuki in charge of Iwabitsu Castle, further reinforcing eastern Kōzuke.
On July 10, Uesugi Kagekatsu invaded Northern Shinano. Masayuki sided with the Uesugi initially, but a couple of weeks later he defected to Hōjō's side. Both Uesugi and Hojo's armies came to face each other at Kawanakajima on July 30, but direct combat was avoided as the Hōjō army turned back and advanced south towards Kai province, which was in turn invaded by Tokugawa forces. Meanwhile, one of Uesugi clan's major retainer, Shibata Shigeie, revolted and Uesugi's forces also had to turn back from Northern Shinano to deal with it. At one point, the Hōjō had come close to controlling most of Shinano province, but then in October, Masayuki suddenly betrayed them, providing help to Yoda Nobushige, a local lord who had been resisting against Hōjō's advances under the Tokugawa banner at Kasuga Castle. He then officially defected to the Tokugawa's side. Faced with this development, Hōjō Ujinao saw his position in the conflict weaken and decided for a peace treaty and further alliance with the Tokugawa clan. This event marked the end of the conflict which lasted for roughly 5 months after Nobunaga's death. Masayuki was now a vassal of Tokugawa Ieyasu.
Conflict with Tokugawa
In 1583, Masayuki started the construction of Ueda Castle and the surrounding town. It became the headquarters of the Sanada clan in the following years.
In 1584, Tokugawa Ieyasu lead his army west towards Owari province in the Battle of Komaki and Nagakute against Hashiba Hideyoshi. Masayuki was left in northern Shinano to keep the Uesugi clan in check and took this opportunity to subjugate small, neighboring landlords and consolidate his power in the region. In December, as Ieyasu made peace with Hideyoshi and returned to his territory, he was pressed by Hōjō Ujinao to act on the terms of their treaty. In 1585, Masayuki moved their main bastion from Sanada-shi Yakata to Ueda Castle.
In that treaty, among other terms, Tokugawa Ieyasu agreed to transfer Numata Castle and its adjacent lands in Kōzuke province to the Hōjō clan. In April 1585, Ieyasu advanced his army into Kai province in a move to pressure Masayuki into abdicating Numata Castle. Masayuki however, resisted having to hand it over, having conquered it with great effort years before. Ultimately, he decided to cut relations with Tokugawa Ieyasu and once more switched allegiances by sending his second son Nobushige to Uesugi Kagekatsu as a hostage. With this move, he effectively joined Hashiba Hideyoshi's side, which opposed the Tokugawa-Hōjō alliance.
Months later, Tokugawa forces invaded Sanada clan's territory in northern Shinano province with 7,000 men and laid siege to Ueda Castle, which was defended by only 1,200 soldiers. However, Masayuki was able to inflict 1,300 casualties on Tokugawa's side and won a decisive victory. Meanwhile, Hōjō Ujinao attacked Numata Castle, but was also rebuffed by Sanada forces. This was the First Battle of Ueda Castle, a victory that earned Masayuki national prominence. Following this, Masayuki went from being just a former Takeda retainer to become recognized as an independent daimyō.
Service under Toyotomi
Following his victory over the Tokugawa clan, Masayuki became a vassal to Toyotomi Hideyoshi. In doing so, he sent his son Nobushige (at the time a hostage to Uesugi clan) as a hostage to Osaka.
In 1586, the Hōjō clan try to take Numata Castle once more, but again are repelled. Tokugawa forces also gather and march towards Ueda Castle again, but Toyotomi Hideyoshi interposes. At this point, Hideyoshi's political presence in Japan is too strong for the Tokugawa clan to oppose, and at his mediation, the attack is called off. However, he also designates Masayuki as a back-up power to the bigger Tokugawa forces in the region. This effectively means that Masayuki now responds to Tokugawa Ieyasu in all military matters.
The following year, 1587, sees Masayuki travelling to Sunpu to meet with Tokugawa Ieyasu. Then, he goes to Osaka to be received in audience by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and thus formally become a vassal of the Toyotomi regime.
Two more years would pass until the dispute between the Sanada and Hōjō clans involving Numata Castle and adjacent areas would be mediated by Hideyoshi and resolved. In 1589, Hideyoshi decides the Sanada clan would relinquish all of its domain east of Tone River, including Numata Castle, to the Hōjō clan. In turn, he granted them some territory in southern Shinano. However, by the end of that year, Inomata Kuninori, a retainer from the Hōjō clan who was now holding Numata Castle, is deceived into attacking the nearby Nagurumi Castle, located west of Tone River and defended by Sanada forces. The attack is successful and the castle is seized by Hōjō forces, but by this time, Toyotomi Hideyoshi had sanctioned a rule which prohibited daimyōs from engaging in battle over private disputes. This incident fully breached this rule and it would go on to become the reason of the Siege of Odawara in 1590, and the subsequent fall of the Hōjō clan.
Sekigahara campaign
After Hideyoshi's death in 1598, Masayuki joined Ishida Mitsunari's side during the Battle of Sekigahara. Masayuki sent his eldest son, Nobuyuki, to the eastern side, while Masayuki and his younger son, Nobushige, fought on the western side, a move that ensured the Sanada clan's survival.
Fortifying Ueda Castle, Masayuki fought against Tokugawa Hidetada's 38,000 men with only 2,000 soldiers. This was the Second Battle of Ueda Castle, and, whilst it was not exactly a victory, Masayuki was able to deliver a heavy blow to Hidetada and delay his forces for long enough that they were unable to show up at the main battlefield on time.
However, the western side, led by Ishida Mitsunari, lost the main battle, and the victorious Tokugawa Ieyasu was able to redistribute fiefs at will. Masayuki and Nobushige were initially going to be executed, but, given Nobuyuki's participation in the eastern army, they were instead exiled to Kudoyama in Kii province. The Sanada clan was inherited by Sanada Nobuyuki.
Sanada Masayuki died of an illness in Kudoyama in 1611.
Legacy
Even though Masayuki was never able to expand his territories as well as other daimyōs, he is nevertheless often considered a talented daimyō, doomed by misfortune and the inconvenient terrains which surrounded his home domain. Toyotomi Hideyoshi had called Masayuki a person whose inside did not match his outside, that his allegiance was fickle and not to be trusted. Nevertheless, it was exactly his drifting alliances that helped the Sanada clan survive the onslaught of hostile clans, and, since the Edo period, he has been more extolled than vilified.
In popular culture
Sanada Taiheiki 1985 TV series, played by Tetsuro Tamba.
Sanada Maru NHK Taiga drama in 2016, played by Masao Kusakari.
See also
Sanada Nobuyuki
Sanada Yukimura
Samurai Warriors: Spirit of Sanada a hack and slash video game that focuses on the Sanada clan
References
Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 325.
Turnbull, Stephen (1998). The Samurai Sourcebook. London: Cassell & Co. p. 76.
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Sanada Yukimura
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, actual name: , was a Japanese samurai warrior of the Sengoku period. He was especially known as the leading general on the defending side of the Siege of Osaka.
Yukimura was called "A Hero who may appear once in a hundred years", "Crimson Demon of War" and "The Last Sengoku Hero". The famed veteran of the invasion of Korea, Shimazu Tadatsune, called him the .
Early life
He was the second son of Sanada Masayuki (1547–1611). His elder brother was Sanada Nobuyuki. He was married to Chikurin-in (Akihime), Ōtani Yoshitsugu's daughter and adopted daughter of Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
Three other wives of Yukimura were his first wife the daughter/sister of Hotta Sakubei, who lost her status to Chikurin-in; Takanashi Naiki's daughter and Ryūsei-in (a daughter of Toyotomi Hidetsugu).
In 1575, the Battle of Nagashino claimed the lives of two of Sanada Masayuki's elder brothers. Masayuki, previously serving Takeda Shingen and Takeda Katsuyori as a retainer, inherited the Sanada clan and left for Ueda Castle. Yukimura also went, taking the Sanada name as well.
By 1582, the Oda-Tokugawa forces had destroyed the Takeda clan. The Sanada initially surrendered to Oda Nobunaga, but, after the incident at Honnō-ji, it became independent again, drifting between stronger daimyōs such as the Uesugi clan, the Later Hōjō clan, and the Tokugawa clan. Eventually, the Sanada clan became a vassal of Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
Sekigahara campaign
In 1600, before the Battle of Sekigahara, Tokugawa Ieyasu rallied various daimyōs to attack Uesugi Kagekatsu. The Sanada clan complied as well, but when Ishida Mitsunari decided to challenge Ieyasu, Masayuki and Yukimura joined the western forces, parting ways with Masayuki's eldest son and Yukimura's brother, Nobuyuki, who joined the eastern forces. It has been said that at first Yukimura followed Ieyasu but, after Ieyasu tried to seize his territory he betrayed Ieyasu. The true motive of Masayuki and Yukimura's decision is disputed with many theories, but there are two main schools of thought: in one, Masayuki made the decision (and Yukimura agreed); he expressed the willingness to take a gamble, so that if he were to join the weak side and win the battle, the Sanada would gain much more power. The other theory is the opposite where they planned a safety net; Masayuki, Yukimura, and Nobuyuki discussed the situation when Ieyasu asked them to state their allegiance clearly, and they decided to join separate sides, so that, regardless of the outcome of the battle, the Sanada clan would survive.
Siege of Ueda and Exile
The Sanada retreated and fortified Ueda Castle. When Tokugawa Hidetada marched a sizable army on the Nakasendō, the Sanada resisted and were able to fight Hidetada's 40,000 men with only 2,000. However, as the castle did not fall in the short time that he expected, Hidetada gave up and joined the main Tokugawa army, too late however, to participate in the crucial Battle of Sekigahara. After the battle Masayuki's territory was seized and he and Yukimura were exiled to Mt. Koya in the Kii Peninsula. Ueda was given to Nobuyuki. Yukimura rose against the Tokugawa when the Winter Battle of Osaka Castle broke out in 1614.
Osaka campaign
The Siege of Osaka Castle was a series of battles undertaken by the Tokugawa shogunate against the Toyotomi clan, and ending in that clan’s destruction. Divided into two stages (Winter Campaign and Summer Campaign), lasting from 1614 to 1615, the siege put an end to the last major armed opposition to the shogunate’s establishment. The end of the conflict is sometimes referred to as the Genna Armistice (Genna Embu), because the era name was changed from Keichō to Genna immediately following the siege.
Winter Siege of Osaka Castle
The winter campaign began on November 19, 1614; Osaka Castle siege commenced on December 4, 1614, and lasted until January 22, 1615, when truce was reached.
On November 19, Tokugawa forces (approx. 3,000 men) attacked a fort across the Kizu River, destroying it. A week later, Tokugawa forces attacked the village of Imafuku with 1,500 men against a defending force of 600. With the aid of a squad of arquebusiers, the Tokugawa claimed victory once again. Several more small forts and villages were attacked before the siege on Osaka Castle itself began on December 4, 1614. Yukimura built a small fortress called Sanada-maru in the southwest corner of Osaka Castle. The Sanada-maru was an earthwork barbican defended by 7,000 men under Yukimura's command. From there, he defeated the Tokugawa forces (approx. 30,000 men) with groups of 6,000 arquebusiers. The Shōgun's forces were repeatedly repelled, and the Sanada troops launched a number of attacks against the siege lines, breaking through three times. Ieyasu then resorted to artillery, which included 17 imported European cannons and domestic wrought iron cannons, as well as sappers employed to dig under the walls of the fortress. The fortress was impregnable; the Tokugawa suffered many losses.
Ieyasu gave up trying to destroy the castle during this battle, and sued for peace with Toyotomi Hideyori. He proposed a condition for the reconciliation, i.e. to destroy the outer moat of the castle. When his envoy entered the castle grounds, they destroyed not only the outer moat but the inner moat as well.
Summer Siege of Osaka Castle and Death
On June 3, 1615 (6th day of 5th month of 20 year of Keicho era), at the Battle of Dōmyōji, Sanada Yukimura was in command of the Osaka Army on the right wing and engaged in a battle with Date Masamune forces in the area of Emperor Ōjin's Tomb and Konda Hachiman Shrine. This fight took place at around 12:00 and by 5:00 PM Sanada Yukimura made the decision to retreat towards Osaka Castle.
On June 3, 1615 (7th day of 5th month of 20 year of Keicho era), at the Battle of Tennōji after hurrying back to Osaka castle, Yukimura found the massive Tokugawa force of nearly 150,000 moving into positions in order to make their final assault on the castle. As the Tokugawa units were still moving into formation, the Toyotomi forces launched a last ditch offensive with their approximate 54,000 to 60,000 troops that hoped to take the still loose Tokugawa formations off-guard. As the vanguard of the Tokugawa left flank under Matsudaira Tadanao marched to their positions, Yukimura's troops charged down from Chausuyama (茶臼山) and fought with desperate abandon together with Mori Katsunaga's contingent. As Matsudaira’s line began to crumble, Ieyasu rushed his personal body of troops up to support Matsudaira and Yukimura saw his chance to smash through the center. If he could keep the center of the Tokugawa forces tied up long enough for Hideyori to sally out of the castle and lead a general charge on the exposed Tokugawa flank, the Toyotomi forces might have a chance at victory—or so he hoped. Thus, at this moment, Yukimura dispatched his son, Sanada Daisuke back to the castle to urge Hideyori to seize the moment and sally forward. But Hideyori was too late. As the fighting raged around him, the exhausted Yukimura collapsed on a camp stool. According to legend, Yukimura's last words were along the lines of "Who dares to take my head?" Nishio Nizaemon, a Tokugawa samurai, recognized Yukimura and charged forward, issuing a challenge. Unable to muster the strength to fight, Yukimura acknowledged who he was and took off his helmet. Seconds later, his life came to an abrupt end.
The spot where Sanada Yukimura was killed is located in
Yasui Shrine located to the west of Shitennoji Temple in Osaka, and his grave is in Zenmyosho-In in Ueda.
Family
Parents
Father: Sanada Masayuki
Mother: Kanshō-in (1549?-1613)
Siblings
Muramatsu-dono
Sanada Nobuyuki
Sanada Nobukatsu
Sanada Masachika
Children
Sue/Kiku (すへ/菊) (name meaning "chrysanthemum"). Yukimura's oldest daughter, her mother was Yukimura's original legal wife and first wife Hotta Sakubei's sister/daughter. Sue/Kiku was adopted by Hotta Sakubei.
Ichi (市). Yukimura's second daughter, her mother was either Yukimura's first wife Hotta Sakubei's sister or his second wife Takanashi Naiki's daughter, died in the exile in Kudoyama.
Sanada Daisuke (真田 大助) (1600/1603?–1615). Yukimura's and Chikurin-in's oldest child and eldest son. Born in exile on Mount Kudo. He was born around 1600-1602. He fought with his father in the Osaka Winter Battle to defend the Sanada Maru fortress. When Osaka castle fell, Yukimasa committed seppuku with Toyotomi Hideyori. He was also known as "Sanada Yukimasa" (真田 幸昌 a wordplay on the name of his grandfather Masayuki 昌幸 - Yukimasa is written with the kanji for Masayuki in reverse).
Oume (阿梅) (1604-1681) (name meaning "plum"). Yukimura and Chikurin-in's daughter, born on Mount Kudo. After the fall of Osaka castle, she married Katakura Shigenaga, son of Katakura Kagetsuna. Thanks to Oume, the surviving members of the Sanada clan and all of their retainers were able to find refuge in the Katakura clan. The Katakura crest was even changed to show the 6 coin symbol of the Sanada.
Naho (also known as Den, Oden) (なほ/御田) (1604-1635). Yukimura and Ryūsei-in's daughter.
Akuri (あくり) (dates unknown) (name meaning "chestnut"). Yukimura and Chikurin-in's daughter. Akuri was adopted by Takigawa Kazuatsu, a Tokugawa vassal, after the fall of Osaka castle. Yukimura's sister was married to Kazuatsu. Akuri married Gamou Genzaemon. She was the daughter that was captured along with Chikurin-in by Asano Nagaakira's troops, but both were spared.
Oshobu (阿菖蒲) (160?–1635) (name meaning "iris"). Oshobu was Yukimura and Chikurin-in's daughter. Born on Mount Kudo. She was adopted by Katakura Shigenaga and married to Tamura Sadahiro, a retainer of Date Masamune.
Okane (おかね) (dates unknown). Yukimura and Chikurin-in's daughter. Born on Mount Kudo. She married Ishikawa Sadakiyo. It's said that Sadakiyo changed his name to Sourin, moved to Kyoto and became a master of the tea ceremony. Chikurin-in came to live with Okane after losing her husband. Sourin and Okane had a memorial built for Yukimura and Chikurin-in in Kyoto.
Sanada Daihachi (真田 大八) (1612–1670). Yukimura and Chikurin-in's second son. He was born on Mount Kudo. He was adopted by Katakura Shigenaga, and became "Katakura Morinobu" (片倉 守信). However, the Sanada name was restored to his line generations later.
Miyoshi Yukinobu (三好 幸信) (1615–1667). Yukimura and Ryūsei-in's son. He was born two months after the death of his father He hesitated to use Sanada name and used the Miyoshi clan name instead, which was the original family name of his maternal grandfather Hidetsugu; he called himself as Sajiro MIYOSHI.
Sanada Yukichika (真田 之親) (1615-1670). Born shortly after his father's death, to Chikurin-in. He is not mentioned in historical records, and appears only in folk tales. He is also known as "Sanada Gonzaemon". In one of the tales, it is said that he is a son of Chikurin-in and Yukimura and that he was born in 1615. He supposedly died in 1670 (真田 権左衛門).
Legends and popular depiction
According to primary historical sources and personal letters, he was never referred to as Yukimura. That name surfaced in a military novel written during the Edo period and has since been popularized in modern plays, books, novels, and different media of entertainment. The historical documents use his historical name "Nobushige".
A legend says that Yukimura had ten heroes who took an active role at the battles at Osaka Castle. They were called the Sanada Ten Braves, a group of ninja.
A myth says he indeed managed to kill Ieyasu, but the Ogoshō was replaced by a kagemusha (a decoy or doppelganger) called Ogasawara Hidemasa. This myth is a testimony to the respect modern Japanese have for Yukimura's skills as a military commander.
Another legend states that in the Winter of 1614, Tokugawa Ieyasu sent an envoy to Yukimura with a notice that, if he were to abandon the Toyotomi cause, that he would give his entire prefecture of Shinano and 400,000 koku. Yukimura laughed and posted the notice on the wall for all in the castle to see.
Popular culture
See also
Sanada Taiheiki, a Japanese drama in 1985, played by Masao Kusakari
Sanada Maru, a Japanese Taiga drama in 2016, played by Masato Sakai
Samurai Warriors: Spirit of Sanada, a hack and slash video game that focuses on the Sanada clan
References
Further reading
Osaka 1615: The Last Battle of the Samurai: Stephen Turnbull
Samurai Warlords: The Book of the Daimyo: Stephen Turnbull
External links
Sanada Yukimura entry at Samurai Wiki
Statue of Sanada Yukimura in Osaka, Japan
http://okada-akira.jp/history/vol22.html (list with information about the fate of Yukimura's children in particular the Sendai children)
1567 births
1615 deaths
Japanese warriors killed in battle
16th-century Japanese people
17th-century Japanese people
Samurai
Sanada clan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steller%27s%20eider
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Steller's eider
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Steller's eider (Polysticta stelleri) is a migrating Arctic diving duck that breeds along the coastlines of eastern Russia and Alaska. It is the rarest, smallest, and fastest flying of the eider species. Amongst the Inupiat Eskimo, Steller's eider is known as the "bird that sat in the campfire", referring to the burnt-ish color of the male's belly.
Due to the extensive contraction of its breeding range, the Alaska-breeding population of Steller's eider was listed as vulnerable in 1997 by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The species is protected in Russia and the U.S. and is the subject of an ongoing recovery plan by the European Union and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Taxonomy
Steller’s eider is in the family Anatidae along with other ducks, geese, and swans and is the only species in the genus Polysticta. Despite its name, it is more distantly related than all other extant eider species which are part of the Somateria genus.
Steller's eider was separated from other eider species into its own genus in 1945 due to behavioral and anatomical differences. Accordingly, Steller's eider may provide a taxonomic link between the eider species in the Somateria genus and the other sea ducks.
Description
Steller’s eider is the smallest of four eider species, with both females and males weighing 800 grams on average (1.8 pounds). They have a compact body with a relatively large head, long tail, and a long, thick bill. The males assume their breeding plumage from early winter to midsummer with a black cap, chin, throat, eye-ring, and rump, with a white head and shoulders, light-green patches behind the head and in front of the eye, cinnamon breast and shoulders marked with a prominent black spot. The wings appear to be striped white, with an iridescent bluish-purple background colour and white border. They have palmate feet (3 fully webbed toes) which are a dark bluish-gray, the same color as the legs. In mid-summer to fall, males assume their non-breeding plumage which is primarily dark brown with a white-bordered bluish speculum (secondary feathers) on their wing. Females are a dark to cinnamon brown with a pale-white eye-ring, similar to the lighter brown juveniles. Females also have iridescent bluish-purple speculums with a white border running the entire length of the secondaries.
Habitat and Distribution
During the winter, Steller’s eiders occupy coastal bays and lagoons that offer suitable forage while occasionally feeding in deeper waters that remain adequately sheltered. They nest in marshy tundra along the coast, in areas dominated by water sedge and pendant grass. Within the marshy tundra, they designate specific areas to build their nest, preferring elevated surfaces covered by shallow vegetation such as mosses and grasses. Their molting habitat consists of relatively shallow coastal lagoons that offer viable eelgrass and tidal flats for foraging and beaches and sandbars to rest while they remain flightless.
Population Distributions
There are three recognized breeding populations of Steller’s eiders, one in Alaska and two in Arctic Russia.
The Russian-Atlantic population makes its breeding ground west of the Khatanga River in western Siberia and winters in the Barents and Baltic seas.
The Russian-Pacific population nests on the east side of the Khatanga River and spends its winters in the southern Bering Sea and northern Pacific Ocean.
The Alaska-breeding population nests on the Arctic Coastal Plain and in exceptionally small numbers in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, and winters in the southern Bering Sea and northern Pacific ocean. Less than 1% of the world’s Steller’s eiders nest in Alaska.
Some non-breeding populations will also spend their summers in northern Norway, on the east coast of Russia and adjacent waters, and south-west Alaska.
Behaviour and ecology
Feeding and Diet
Steller's eiders forage primarily near the shore by employing various techniques such as briefly diving and swimming underwater (to a maximum depth of 9m), wading and dabbling. They feed by surface techniques more than other sea ducks and prefer relatively small prey. Studies have shown that Steller's eiders are specialists in catching highly mobile prey but may limit their diet to crustaceans even when higher energy sources, such as capelin, become available. This discrepancy in food preferences may be due to their inability to exploit deeper habitats. Steller's eiders also feed on mollusks, echinoderms, polychaete worms, and mussels during the winter. While in the tundra during the summer months, they feed on aquatic insects and plant material such as crowberries and pondweeds.
Reproduction
According to banding studies, Steller's eiders can live up to 21 years and four months and reach sexual maturity at two years. Males engage in leks on the wintering and breeding grounds, where groups of males attempt to win over an individual female with elaborate displays. Males court females in silence by displaying a consistent sequence of side-to-side head-shaking while swimming towards and away from their potential female partner. Steller's eiders tend to form breeding pairs during late-winter to early-spring instead of the fall like most waterfowl. Breeding pairs arrive at their nesting sites as early as the beginning of June.
Females establish their nests in marshy tundra close to permanent open water that has additional access to small ponds. They specifically select mounds or ridges dominated by mosses, lichens, and grasses. Their nest is shallow, lined with grasses, moss, lichens, and down feathers plucked from the female's breast, who builds the nest without help from the male.
Females usually lay 1-8 olive to brownish-orange eggs per breeding cycle. She then incubates the eggs alone for about 25 days. The young are precocial and hatch between late June and late July with their eyes open and sporting downy feathers. However, predators consume the majority of eggs before they are hatched. The young go to the water shortly after hatching and immediately feed themselves, without relying on their mother for food. Regardless of their feeding independence, females will stay within 700m of their nest for up to 35 days post-hatch, while the young begin flying approximately 40 days after hatching. It is not uncommon for one female to assume care of two or more sets of young from a different mother.
Vocalization
Males make a low jumbled growling sound, while females make a discrete qua-haaa sound of a similar tone. Males have also been reported to produce a repetitive crackling sound when females go underwater. Notably, the males court the females in silence. During flight, their feathers produce a mechanical whistling sound.
Molt
After breeding, Steller's eiders gather in high-density flocks to synchronously molt (replace all their feather at the same time) in Arctic lagoons in northwest Asia and along the Alaska peninsula. They remain flightless for about three weeks, but the entire flight-feather molt lasts from July to October. Juveniles molt first, followed by adult males and adult females.
Threats
The decline of Alaska-breeding Steller’s eider population is predominantly unclear. It has been attributed to changes to the Arctic climate, increased predation rates, hunting and consumption of lead shot, and disease. Since their listing, additional threats such as exposure to oil and other contaminants have been identified.
Climate Change
Climate change may pose the greatest threat to Steller’s eiders. Primarily, climate change has caused Arctic tundra ponds to disappear, limiting the extent of suitable habitat for the species. Climate change has also been implicated in the collapse of rodent populations, forcing predators to exploit alternative prey such as the Steller’s eider eggs and young.
Lead Poisoning
High levels of lead have been reported in Steller’s eiders that nest on the Alaska Arctic Coastal plain and in Spectacled Eiders that occupy the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, where Steller’s Eiders continue to nest in highly reduced densities. Further studies have also shown that lead concentration was higher in individuals located close to industrialized regions than non-industrialized regions.
Nest Predation
Nest predation by the Arctic fox, Pomarine jaeger, snowy owl, and common raven pose the greatest threat to Steller’s eider's nesting success rate. Studies have shown that Steller’s eider reproduce most successfully when lemmings are abundant, most likely resulting from predators transitioning between prey during years of lemming decline.
Natural Resource Exploitation
The exploitation of natural resources such as oil and gas contributes to Steller’s eider habitat loss. Regional exploitation projects have increased the risk of spill contamination. At the same time, an increase in human presence and infrastructure have contributed to the demise of suitable habitats.
Disease
Steller’s eiders transport the Avian Influenza virus between Eurasia and North America during their migrations. Many recent studies have reported prominent infection rates amongst the Steller’s eiders in Alaska, ranging from 0.2% to 5%. It has been suggested that 80% of Steller’s eiders in Alaska are carriers of Avian Influenza antibodies.
E.coli has also been reported in Alaska-breeding Steller’s eiders and is thought to be linked to wastewater from local human communities and industrialization.
Recovery plan
Two-recovery plans have been implemented to restore healthy populations of Steller’s eiders. The European Union action plan, published in 2000 and The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service action plan, originally published in 2002.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Action Plan
The Recovery Plan for the Alaska-breeding population of Steller’s eider (Polysticta stelleri) was last revised by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in September 2020. The primary focus of this plan is to ensure a viable breeding population of Steller’s eider in northern Alaska, rather than aiming for two subpopulations in northern and western Alaska. The plan aims to:
Increase the abundance of Steller’s eiders
Ensure adequate population distribution throughout the Utqiaġvik Triangle and Arctic Coastal Plain survey areas
Increase the number of Alaska-breeding Steller’s eiders
The recovery plan is primarily limited by uncertainty about the Alaska-breeding Steller’s eider’s ecology and population dynamics. Thus, the action plan coincides with an effort to conduct research and enhance knowledge of the species.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service predicts that if the plan is adequately funded and properly implemented, the recovery criteria could be met by 2050. The total cost is estimated at $15,675,000.
Critical Habitat Designation
In 2001 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service designated five critical breeding habitats on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and four marine water units along the coast of southwest Alaska that are critical for molting, feeding, and wintering. The entire designation includes approximately 2,800 square miles and 850 miles of coastline.
Conservation status
In 2016, the global population of Steller’s eider was estimated at 110,000-125,000 individuals and classified as vulnerable by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
In 1992, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reviewed the status of the Steller’s eider and concluded that listing the species as endangered was warranted, but precluded by higher species listing priorities. One year later, in 1993, they reconsidered the Steller’s eider’s status and supported the listing of the Alaska-breeding population, but did not include the Russian-breeding populations. Finally, the Alaska-breeding population was listed as threatened in 1997. The primary reason for listing was the near disappearance of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta population, contracting the Alaskan nesting sites to the Arctic Coastal Plain and increasing the population’s risk of extirpation.`
Cultural Significance
Steller’s eiders were once legally harvested by waterfowl hunters in the U.S., but all legal hunting ended in 1991. Egging and subsistence hunting still occurs in Alaska, but is uncommon. The degree of subsistence hunting in Russia and its effect on the population is poorly documented.
References
External links
Steller's eider
Birds of the Arctic
Birds of North Asia
Native birds of Alaska
Steller's eider
Steller's eider
Holarctic birds
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanuki%20Province
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Sanuki Province
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was an historical province of Japan on the island of Shikoku, with the same boundaries as modern Kagawa Prefecture. It was sometimes called .
It faced the Inland Sea and bordered on Awa and Iyo Provinces. Across Naruto strait it bordered Awaji Province too. Administratively it was included as a part of Nankaidō. It was settled in the 7th century and originally consisted of the northeastern part of Shikoku and Awaku Islands on the Inland Sea.
History
Sanuki's ancient capital is believed to have been near modern Sakaide, but has not been discovered. Takamatsu developed as the main seat of the province in the Middle Ages.
In the Classical Period, Sanuki was famous for its associations with the Buddhist monk Kūkai as both his birthplace and the place of his early upbringing. Later, the famed poet Sugawara no Michizane served as governor of the province from 886 to 890 under the Ritsuryō Codes.
In the Sengoku period, Sanuki was ruled by the Miyoshi clan. The Miyoshi were invaded by Chōsokabe clan in Tosa Province and lost Sanuki Province. Finally Chōsokabe lost a battle against Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who rewarded his vassals by assigning Takamatsu Castle to Ikoma Chikamasa , and Sogō Castle to Sogō Masayasu.
In the Edo period, Sanuki was divided into five areas; three han in Takamatsu, Marugame, Tadotsu, the shōguns direct holding and a part of Tsuyama han whose mainland was on Honshū. Naoshima and Shōdoshima was separated from Bizen Province and merged into Sanuki Province.
Historical districts
Kagawa Prefecture
Aya District (阿野郡) – merged with Uta District to become Ayauta District (綾歌郡) on March 16, 1899
Kagawa District (香川郡)
Miki District (三木郡) – merged with Yamada District to become Kita District (木田郡) on March 16, 1899
Mino District (三野郡) – merged with Toyota District to become Mitoyo District (三豊郡) on March 16, 1899
Naka District (那珂郡) – merged with Tado District to become Nakatado District (仲多度郡) on March 16, 1899
Ōuchi District (大内郡) – merged with Sangawa District to become Ōkawa District (大川郡) on March 16, 1899
Sangawa District (寒川郡) – merged with Ōuchi District to become Ōkawa District on March 16, 1899
Shōzu District (小豆郡)
Tado District (多度郡) – merged with Naka District to become Nakatado District on March 16, 1899
Toyota District (豊田郡) – merged with Mino District to become Mitoyo District on March 16, 1899
Uta District (鵜足郡) – merged with Ata District to become Ayauta District on March 16, 1899
Yamada District (山田郡) – merged with Miki District to become Kita District on March 16, 1899
See also
Sanuki udon – Local type of Udon
Kamatamare Sanuki – Local association football club based in Takamatsu
Notes
References
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128
External links
Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Former provinces of Japan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlasov%20Island
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Atlasov Island
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Atlasov Island, known in Russian as Ostrov Atlasova (Остров Атласова), or in Japanese as Araido (阿頼度島), is the northernmost island and volcano and also the highest volcano of the Kuril islands, part of the Sakhalin Oblast in Russia. The Russian name is sometimes rendered in English as Atlasova Island. Other names for the island include Uyakhuzhach, Oyakoba and Alaid, the name of the volcano on the island.
The island is named after Vladimir Atlasov, a 17th-century Russian explorer who incorporated the nearby Kamchatka Peninsula into Russia. It is essentially the cone of the submarine volcano Vulkan Alaid protruding above the Sea of Okhotsk to a height of . The island has an area of , but is currently uninhabited. Numerous pyroclastic cones dot the lower flanks of basaltic to basaltic andesite volcano, particularly on the NW and SE sides, including an offshore cone formed during the 1933–34 eruption.
Its near perfect shape gave rise to many legends about the volcano among the peoples of the region, such as the Itelmens and Kuril Ainu. The Russian scientist Stepan Krasheninnikov was told the story that it was once a mountain in Kamchatka, but the neighbouring mountains became jealous of its beauty and exiled it to the sea, leaving behind Kurile Lake in southern Kamchatka. Geographically, this story is not without evidence, as after the last Ice Age most of the icecaps melted, raising the world's water level, and possibly submerging a landbridge to the volcano.
Following the transfer of the Kuril Islands to Japan by the Treaty of St Petersburg, 1875, Oyakoba as it is called by the Japanese, became the northernmost island of the empire and subject of much aesthetic praise, described in haiku, ukiyo-e, etc.
Ito Osamu (1926) described it as more exquisitely shaped than Mount Fuji.
Administratively this island belongs to the Sakhalin Oblast of the Russian Federation.
See also
List of islands of Russia
List of volcanoes in Russia
List of ultras of Northeast Asia
References
External links
The Russian Kuril Islands Expedition to Atlasov
Sakhalin Oblast
"Vulkan Alaid, Russia" on Peakbagger
Active volcanoes
Islands of the Sea of Okhotsk
Islands of the Russian Far East
Stratovolcanoes of Russia
Islands of the Kuril Islands
Uninhabited islands of Russia
Uninhabited islands of the Pacific Ocean
Volcanoes of the Kuril Islands
Mountains of the Kuril Islands
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oundle
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Oundle
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Oundle () is a market town on the left bank of the River Nene in North Northamptonshire, England, which had a population of 5,735 at the time of the 2011 census. It is north of London and south-west of Peterborough. The town is home to Oundle School.
History
The town's name origin is uncertain. It is probably an old district name, in a grammatical form suggesting a tribal name, 'the Undalas'.
Discoveries of prehistoric and Bronze Age, Iron Age and Roman materials suggest that Oundle has been a settlement location for several thousand years. Findings have included a number of Iron Age coins, and Roman bronze pins, coins and skeletons. A significant Roman find was part of a Roman cup discovered in the church yard of St. Peter's Church in the early 19th Century. Further excavation on the site lead to the findings of many Roman coins, some from the time of the reign of Emperor Claudius. The finding of red tile and building stone at a site near Ashton Road, Oundle is seen as suggestive that there may have been a Roman villa there; a nearby archaeological evaluation found a ditch containing fragments of Romano-British pottery.
The Saxon invasion saw the arrival of a tribe called Undalas which possibly meant undivided. Oundle was the site of a hospitium, a building used by monks to give shelter and assistance to travellers, which dates back to 638 AD. It is the death place of St Wilfrid in 709 AD where he had consecrated a church as well as being the location of one of his monasteries. The current St Peter's Church occupies the same site as St Wilfrid's original church.
The first clear reference to Oundle is to be found in a 715 account by Eddi, who was the chantor to St Wilfrid, who referred to it as Undolum. Bede variously refers to it as Inundalum and Undulana mœgð.
Saint Cetta or Cett, a 7th-century saint, is the Patron Saint of Oundle. Very little is known of him but according to the Anglo-Saxon Secgan Manuscript he was buried in the monastery at Oundle, near the River Nene, around 1000 AD and a chapel to him built in the 11th century, on the small knoll beyond the end of St Sythes Lane. This and the market charter granted in 972 explain the growth of Oundle in the 12th century.
The Domesday Book of 1086 records Oundle in Polebrook hundred with a population of 36 households, a mill and a value in 1066 of £0.3, which had risen to £11 by 1086.
There has been a grammar school in Oundle since at least 1465, at which Sir William Laxton (Lord Mayor of London) was educated. In his will he left a legacy to found Laxton Grammar School in 1556, now known as Oundle School, administered by the Worshipful Company of Grocers.
In 1743 a group of mutineers from the Black Watch were captured at Ladywood, near Oundle. They had deserted in protest at being sent abroad, instead of patrolling the Highlands, for which the regiment had been raised.
Governance
Oundle is part of the parliamentary constituency of Corby. The current Member of Parliament (MP) for Corby is Tom Pursglove of the Conservative Party, who was elected in May 2015. He had previously been a local councillor, and the youngest councillor in the country.
Oundle was part of the East Midlands constituency for the European Parliament prior to 2020.
At a local level, the town elects a 12-person town council every four years to form the Oundle Town Council. The council is a non-politically affiliated group that work to further the social and economic interests of Oundle. A Mayor and Deputy Mayor are elected by the council every May.
Geography
Oundle is a town located in the North Northamptonshire district of Northamptonshire county, on the River Nene, with Corby 9 miles to the west, and Peterborough 12 miles to the north-east. Despite being located within Northamptonshire, Oundle falls into the 'PE8' post-code district for Peterborough.
The Oundle Parish boundary consists of approximately 900 hectares and covers the entire urban build, as well as open countryside. The boundary follows the River Nene to the East and South of the town, and extends west to Oundle Wood and north to Park Wood. This boundary was established during an extensive East Northants Boundary review in 2013.
Geology
The region itself is located on solid formations from the Jurassic age, with Oundle being built on the sedimentary rock oolite.
Economy
Oundle is home to one of two factories producing luxury motor yachts for Fairline Yachts Ltd. The original company, Fairline Boats, which was also located in Oundle entered administration in 2015 before being acquired by Russian investors in January 2016.
Landmarks
Public Houses
Among the oldest buildings is the Talbot Hotel. This was constructed of timber; it was rebuilt with stone in 1626 from the ruins of nearby Fotheringhay Castle. The hotel is notable for the claim of being haunted by the ghost of Mary Queen of Scots who was executed in Fotheringhay in 1587. The hotel is said to contain the oak staircase taken from the ruins of Fotheringhay Castle that Mary walked down while being escorted to her execution.
Other public houses include The Rose & Crown, a 17th-century inn, The Ship Inn, a 14th-century coaching inn, The George, and The Riverside, which has become derelict.
Churches
There are a number of churches. By far the most prominent, its 210-foot spire being the tallest in Northamptonshire, is St Peter's Church which has the main churchyard. There are also Methodist, Baptist and Roman Catholic churches. The Baptist church has a premises on St Osyth's Lane but holds services on Sunday mornings at Oundle Church of England Primary School.
The Stahl Theatre
The Stahl Theatre is a 264-seat theatre venue owned by Oundle School that was previously a disused Congregational Church chapel on West Street. Oundle School, under the instruction of then housemaster John Harrison, bought the building in the late 1970s and converted the chapel into the theatre which opened for performances in 1980. Harrison became the building's director and produced many performances before his retirement in 1993. In 2012 he returned to produce Love's Labour's Lost, his 100th Stahl Theatre production before his death in 2018. The building is named after Ronald Stahl, a US citizen who lived in Oundle in 1900. Today, the theatre is used by a variety of local groups, including Oundle School, Oundle Church of England Primary school and the local Oundle Gilbert & Sullivan Players.
War Memorial
The war memorial, known officially as the Oundle and Ashton War Memorial, is located at the junction of New Street and West Street. Constructed in 1920 at a cost of £600, it was unveiled on 14 November 1920 by Mr F.W. Sanderson and dedicated at the same ceremony by Canon Smalley Law, the Vicar of Oundle. Originally commemorating the local lives lost during the First World War, it also includes dedications to those killed in the Second World War. The memorial takes the form of a five-stepped octagonal base surmounted by two square plinths and a slightly tapering rectangular pillar. In turn, this is further surmounted by a small cross. The memorial was classed as a Grade II listed building by Historic England on 7 June 1974, which classes it as a 'particularly important building of more than special interest.'
The memorial has inscriptions to 95 people killed in the two wars. 68 for the First World War and 27 for the Second World War. The now closed Oundle Middle School took the names of four of those inscribed on the memorial as names of its school houses, those were D.F. Barber, J.L. Marlow, J.H. Mason and P. Richardson. All four served in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War.
Transport
Road
Oundle is located off the A605 that links the A14 at Thrapston to the A1 at Peterborough. The road at Oundle underwent major improvements in 1985 resulting in the Oundle bypass being opened on 12 December 1985 by Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester and is commemorated by a plinth and brass plaque at the roundabout.
Rail
With the definitive closure of Oundle railway station in late 1972, there are currently no rail links operating in Oundle. The station originally opened in June 1845 and was designed by John Livock, a prominent architect at the time who was best known for his railway station construction. The original station building is still in use today as private residential property.
Bus
There is no main bus station in Oundle, however, there are regular services stopping in the market place with several other stops located throughout the town. The primary bus route servicing Oundle daily is the Stagecoach operated X4 that links Northampton and Peterborough.
Education
The town's most notable school is Oundle School, a public school with around a thousand pupils, most of whom are boarders. The two other schools in the town are Prince William School, a comprehensive school, and Oundle Church of England Primary School, which rated as "Outstanding" in its 2011 Ofsted inspection.
Culture and community
Oundle hosts a number of annual events, notably:
The Oundle International Festival (OIF) is an annual music festival and pipe organ school, founded in 1985, with the training of young organists as its core. These summer schools are centred on a Frobenius organ in the Oundle School chapel. A concurrent festival programme for the public was also planned as a recurrent feature.
The Oundle Festival of Literature has regular events throughout the year featuring established, local and new authors.
The Oundle Fringe Festival is an annual arts and entertainment festival that began in 2011 to help showcase local musical and literary performers. It has grown rapidly since its inception and takes place over a 10-day period every July, with performances of genres of music such as rock and jazz, and also literary readings and theatrical performances.
The Oundle carnival has taken place since 2009.
A farmers' market is held in the Market Place on the second Saturday of every month as well as a local market every Thursday. There is a park with swings and climbing frames, as well as a skatepark built in 2005 and regenerated in 2012. An annual fair and circus is held in the park.
Oundle has shops, pubs, cafes and restaurants in the town centre. It also has three supermarkets: a Co-op, a Waitrose and a Tesco.
Filming Locations
External shots for the 2012 Daniel Radcliffe film The Woman in Black were filmed at Cotterstock Hall just north of Oundle.
Town partnerships
Oundle maintains partnerships with the following places:
Andrésy, France
Nauort, Germany
Notable people
William Abell – a vintner (wine merchant) born in Oundle
George Blagden – actor who was accepted into Oundle School on a drama scholarship and performed various roles at the town's Stahl Theatre. He has since appeared in television shows such as Vikings and Versailles, and also the 2012 movie Les Misérables.
Richard Dawkins – a scientist educated in Oundle
Bruce Dickinson frontman of Iron Maiden attended Oundle School as a teenager.
Marian Hobbs – former politician (formerly on the staff of Prince William School)
John Knight – cricketer
Louise Mensch – briefly the local Member of Parliament (MP), lived in Oundle
Himesh Patel – actor who appeared in the British soap opera EastEnders from 2007 to 2016 and stars in the 2019 film Yesterday directed by Danny Boyle attended Prince William School.
Ebenezer Prout – a musical theorist born in Oundle.
Ivo Watts-Russell, founder of independent record label 4AD was born nearby and went to school in Oundle
Sport
Football
Oundle Town Football Club – Founded in 1883 and currently playing in the Peterborough and District Football League Division 1. As well as the senior teams, Oundle Town FC also have minis, youth and junior teams, as well as walking, vets, ladies and girls teams.
Rugby
Oundle Rugby Club – Founded in 1976, Oundle Rugby Club has a senior team playing in the Midlands 1 East division, as well as junior and mini teams.
Cricket
Oundle Town Cricket Club – Founded in 1826 the 1st XI senior team currently play in the Northamptonshire Cricket League Premier division. They also have a ladies and girls teams as well as operating 6 junior teams.
References
External links
Oundle Town Council
Oundle Chronicle
Oundle St Peter's
Oundle Town Football Club
Oundle Town Rugby Club
Oundle Town Cricket Club
Oundle Gilbert & Sullivan Players
Market towns in Northamptonshire
Towns in Northamptonshire
Civil parishes in Northamptonshire
North Northamptonshire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binnenhof
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Binnenhof
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The Binnenhof (; ) is a complex of buildings in the city centre of The Hague, Netherlands, next to the Hofvijver. It houses the meeting place of both houses of the States General of the Netherlands, as well as the Ministry of General Affairs and the office of the Prime Minister of the Netherlands. Built primarily in the 13th century, the Gothic castle originally functioned as residence of the counts of Holland and became the political centre of the Dutch Republic in 1584. It is counted among the Top 100 Dutch heritage sites. The Binnenhof is among the oldest Parliament buildings in the world still in use.
History
Little is known about the origin of the Binnenhof. Presumably, the grounds next to the Hofvijver lake, and the small homestead on it, were purchased by Count Floris IV of Holland from Meiland van Wassenaar in November 1229. Between 1230 and 1234 he had the homestead expanded to a small keep. After Floris' son and successor William II was crowned King of the Romans in 1248, this construction continued. Between 1248 and 1280, William had the Ridderzaal built. To its left and right, walls were built, which divided the area in front of the building from that behind it. Both walls had a gate. At the end of the wall on the left, near the Hofvijver, the court chapel was built, and near that the Ridderhuis (literally Knights' House) where visiting knights were sheltered. William died in battle in 1256, before the construction of the Ridderzaal had finished, and the castle was completed during the reign of his son, Floris V.
The Binnenhof was the residence of the counts of Holland for a short period. After the house of Holland died out in 1299, the county fell in the hands of the counts of Hainaut. The counts of Hainaut barely resided in the Binnenhof in the early 14th century. Duke Albert I of Bavaria and his successor William II lived in the Binnenhof virtually permanently. Under their reign, the castle saw a sizeable expansion, and gradually became enclosed by buildings.
When Holland had become part of the Burgundian Empire in 1432, the Binnenhof lost its purpose and was abandoned. Part of the complex was later made into the residence of the stadtholder of Holland, who governed the county in absence of its ruler. After Philip II was deposed as Count of Holland and the Dutch Republic was proclaimed in 1581, the Ridderzaal was initially a public space, often used by traders, stallholders and book sellers. In 1584, stadtholder Maurice moved into the stadtholder's quarter, and in the same year, the Ridderzaal became the meeting place of the newly formed States General of the Dutch Republic. The expansions of the Binnenhof by Maurice were the beginning of a gradually advancing reconstruction of the castle that ended after the construction of the southern wing under stadtholder William V, in the late 18th century.
Between 1806 and 1810, under French rule, the administrative centre of the Netherlands was moved to Amsterdam, and the Binnenhof became useless and it was considered for demolition. When the Netherlands gained independence from France, however, the government moved back to the Binnenhof. The existence of the building was in danger a second time in 1848, when a new constitution instituted a system of parliamentary democracy and the States General wished to symbolically demolish the old government buildings and build a new complex. The local residents, however, cared more for the historic value of the building, and successfully protested against demolition.
The House of Representatives sat in the Oude Zaal (literally Old Hall) until 1992, when it had become too small to facilitate the 150 members of the house, and a modern expansion was built on the south of the building, housing its new seat.
Layout
Originally built as a ballroom, the Gothic Ridderzaal (a great hall, literally Knight's Hall) today forms the centre of the Binnenhof. Every third Tuesday of September, on Prinsjesdag, this is where the King holds his annual Speech from the Throne. Other buildings shape a rectangle around the Ridderzaal, creating a large courtyard in front of the building, and a smaller square behind it. A gilt Neo-Gothic fountain adorns the courtyard and a statue of King William II, one of few Dutch equestrian statues, guards its gate, the Stadtholder's Gate, which dates from 1620.
Looking out over the Hofvijver, the Senate sits in a chamber in the western corner of the Binnenhof, while the House of Representatives originally sat in the southern corner, at the other side of the Stadtholder's Gate. Today, the lower house meets in a chamber in the large modern eastern part of the complex. The Prime Minister's office has since 1982 been located in the small tower in the northern corner, simply called the Torentje (English: "Little Tower"). Located in the north-western wing, the Trêveszaal is a meeting room originally built for negotiations during the Eighty Years' War; today, it is the meeting room of the Cabinet.
Renovation
Starting in the fall of 2021 (after Prinsjesdag), the Binnenhof will undergo a full renovation.
In 2014, a specially assigned task force, Renovatie Binnenhof, suggested a large renovation for the Binnenhof. Before that, only small maintenance had been done to the complex. Mostly the older buildings, next to the Hofvijver, are in need of renovation, such as Het Torentje (office of the Prime Minister of the Netherlands), de Trêveszaal (where the cabinet of the Netherlands holds its weekly meetings) and several other buildings. The renovation will mostly focus around air conditioning and central heating installations, IT systems, elevators, fire safety and modernisation of the kitchens.
In December 2015 a majority of the Dutch Parliament elected a plan for a full renovation of the complex, which will take approximately 5.5 years and is estimated to cost around €475 million. The first plan was to start the renovations in 2018, however this was postponed several times. The Senate will be moved during the renovation to the former building of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which has been prepared by a €40 million remodeling. The Prime Minister of the Netherlands and the Ministry of General Affairs will be moved to the Catshuis, where a temporary office building will house several hundred officials. The senate will be moved to Huis Huguetan, the former Supreme Court of the Netherlands building. The house of representatives will be moved to the former building of the secretary of state.
In 2017, the architectural firm Office for Metropolitan Architecture (OMA) received the assignment for designing and preparing the renovation. In early 2019 information was leaked that the projected cost for several 'activities' such as painting, carpets and security was off by around €60 million. Also, in 2019, the contract with OMA was discontinued. Another architectural firm, DOK, under the lead of architect Pi de Bruijn, who also designed the new construction for the Senate, was assigned to finish the plans. In the summer of 2021, politicians and officials will be moved to their temporary workplaces and after Prinsjesdag, which is on 21 September 2021, construction will begin in and around the Binnenhof.
References
External links
Official site
Buildings and structures in The Hague
Legislative buildings in Europe
Seats of national legislatures
Squares in The Hague
States General of the Netherlands
Tourist attractions in South Holland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20DOS%20commands
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List of DOS commands
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This article presents a list of commands used by DOS operating systems, especially as used on x86-based IBM PC compatibles (PCs). Other DOS operating systems are not part of the scope of this list.
In DOS, many standard system commands were provided for common tasks such as listing files on a disk or moving files. Some commands were built into the command interpreter, others existed as external commands on disk. Over the several generations of DOS, commands were added for the additional functions of the operating system. In the current Microsoft Windows operating system, a text-mode command prompt window, cmd.exe, can still be used.
Command processing
The command interpreter for DOS runs when no application programs are running. When an application exits, if the transient portion of the command interpreter in memory was overwritten, DOS will reload it from disk. Some commands are internal—built into COMMAND.COM; others are external commands stored on disk. When the user types a line of text at the operating system command prompt, COMMAND.COM will parse the line and attempt to match a command name to a built-in command or to the name of an executable program file or batch file on disk. If no match is found, an error message is printed, and the command prompt is refreshed.
External commands were too large to keep in the command processor, or were less frequently used. Such utility programs would be stored on disk and loaded just like regular application programs but were distributed with the operating system. Copies of these utility command programs had to be on an accessible disk, either on the current drive or on the command path set in the command interpreter.
In the list below, commands that can accept more than one file name, or a filename including wildcards (* and ?), are said to accept a filespec (file specification) parameter. Commands that can accept only a single file name are said to accept a filename parameter. Additionally, command line switches, or other parameter strings, can be supplied on the command line. Spaces and symbols such as a "/" or a "-" may be used to allow the command processor to parse the command line into filenames, file specifications, and other options.
The command interpreter preserves the case of whatever parameters are passed to commands, but the command names themselves and file names are case-insensitive.
Many commands are the same across many DOS systems, but some differ in command syntax or name.
DOS commands
A partial list of the most common commands for MS-DOS and IBM PC DOS follows below.
APPEND
Sets the path to be searched for data files or displays the current search path.
The APPEND command is similar to the PATH command that tells DOS where to search for program files (files with a .COM, . EXE, or .BAT file name extension).
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later.
ASSIGN
The command redirects requests for disk operations on one drive to a different drive. It can also display drive assignments or reset all drive letters to their original assignments.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3 through 5 and IBM PC DOS releases 2 through 5.
ATTRIB
Attrib changes or views the attributes of one or more files. It defaults to display the attributes of all files in the current directory. The file attributes available include read-only, archive, system, and hidden attributes. The command has the capability to process whole folders and subfolders of files and also process all files.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3 and later.
BACKUP and RESTORE
These are commands to backup and restore files from an external disk. These appeared in version 2, and continued to PC DOS 5 and MS-DOS 6 (PC DOS 7 had a deversioned check). In DOS 6, these were replaced by commercial programs (CPBACKUP, MSBACKUP), which allowed files to be restored to different locations.
BASIC and BASICA
An implementation of the BASIC programming language for PCs. Implementing BASIC in this way was very common in operating systems on 8- and 16-bit machines made in the 1980s.
IBM computers had BASIC 1.1 in ROM, and IBM's versions of BASIC used code in this ROM-BASIC, which allowed for extra memory in the code area. BASICA last appeared in IBM PC DOS 5.02, and in OS/2 (2.0 and later), the version had ROM-BASIC moved into the program code.
Microsoft released GW-BASIC for machines with no ROM-BASIC. Some OEM releases had basic.com and basica.com as loaders for GW-BASIC.EXE.
BASIC was dropped after MS-DOS 4, and PC DOS 5.02. OS/2 (which uses PC DOS 5), has it, while MS-DOS 5 does not.
BREAK
This command is used to instruct DOS to check whether the and keys have been pressed before carrying out a program request.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
CALL
Starts a batch file from within another batch file and returns when that one ends.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 and later.
CD and CHDIR
The CHDIR (or the alternative name CD) command either displays or changes the current working directory.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
CHCP
The command either displays or changes the active code page used to display character glyphs in a console window. Similar functionality can be achieved with MODE CON: CP SELECT=.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 and later.
CHKDSK
CHKDSK verifies a storage volume (for example, a hard disk, disk partition or floppy disk) for file system integrity. The command has the ability to fix errors on a volume and recover information from defective disk sectors of a volume.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
CHOICE
The CHOICE command is used in batch files to prompt the user to select one item from a set of single-character choices. Choice was introduced as an external command with MS-DOS 6.0; Novell DOS 7 and PC DOS 7.0. Earlier versions of DR-DOS supported this function with the built-in switch command (for numeric choices) or by beginning a command with a question mark. This command was formerly called ync (yes-no-cancel).
CLS
The CLS or CLRSCR command clears the terminal screen.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
COMMAND
Start a new instance of the command interpreter.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
COMP
Show differences between any two files, or any two sets of files.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 through 5 and IBM PC DOS releases 1 through 5.
COPY
Makes copies of existing files.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
CTTY
Defines the terminal device (for example, COM1) to use for input and output.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
DATE
Displays the system date and prompts the user to enter a new date. Complements the TIME command.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
DBLBOOT
(Not a command: This is a batch file added to DOS 6.X Supplemental Disks to help create DoubleSpace boot floppies.)
DBLSPACE
A disk compression utility supplied with MS-DOS version 6.0 (released in 1993) and version 6.2.
DEBUG
A very primitive assembler and disassembler.
DEFRAG
The command has the ability to analyze the file fragmentation on a disk drive or to defragment a drive. This command is called DEFRAG in MS-DOS/PC DOS and diskopt in DR-DOS.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
DEL and ERASE
DEL (or the alternative form ERASE) is used to delete one or more files.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
DELTREE
Deletes a directory along with all of the files and subdirectories that it contains. Normally, it will ask for confirmation of the potentially dangerous action. Since the RD (RMDIR) command can not delete a directory if the directory is not empty (except in Windows NT & 10), the DELTREE command can be used to delete the whole directory.
The deltree command is included in certain versions of Microsoft Windows and MS-DOS operating systems. It is specifically available only in versions of MS-DOS 6.0 and higher, and in Microsoft Windows 9x. In Windows NT, the functionality provided exists but is handled by the command or which has slightly different syntax. This command is not present in Windows 7 and 8. In Windows 10, the command switch is or .
DIR
The DIR command displays the contents of a directory. The contents comprise the disk's volume label and serial number; one directory or filename per line, including the filename extension, the file size in bytes, and the date and time the file was last modified; and the total number of files listed, their cumulative size, and the free space (in bytes) remaining on the disk. The command is one of the few commands that exist from the first versions of DOS. The command can display files in subdirectories. The resulting directory listing can be sorted by various criteria and filenames can be displayed in a chosen format.
DISKCOMP
A command for comparing the complete contents of a floppy disk to another one.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later and IBM PC DOS releases 1 and later.
DISKCOPY
A command for copying the complete contents of a diskette to another diskette.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
DOSKEY
A command that adds command history, macro functionality, and improved editing features to the command-line interpreter.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
DOSSIZE
Displays how much memory various DOS components occupy.
DRVSPACE
A disk compression utility supplied with MS-DOS version 6.22.
ECHO
The ECHO command prints its own arguments back out to the DOS equivalent of the standard output stream. (Hence the name, ECHO) Usually, this means directly to the screen, but the output of echo can be redirected, like any other command, to files or devices. Often used in batch files to print text out to the user.
Another important use of the echo command is to toggle echoing of commands on and off in batch files. Traditionally batch files begin with the @echo off statement. This says to the interpreter that echoing of commands should be off during the whole execution of the batch file, thus resulting in a "tidier" output (the @ symbol declares that this particular command (echo off) should also be executed without echo.)
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
EDIT
EDIT is a full-screen text editor, included with MS-DOS versions 5 and 6, OS/2 and Windows NT to 4.0 The corresponding program in Windows 95 and later, and Windows 2000 and later is Edit v2.0. PC DOS 6 and later use the DOS E Editor and DR-DOS used editor up to version 7.
EDLIN
DOS line-editor. It can be used with a script file, like debug, this makes it of some use even today. The absence of a console editor in MS-DOS/PC DOS 1–4 created an after-market for third-party editors.
In DOS 5, an extra command "?" was added to give the user much-needed help.
DOS 6 was the last version to contain EDLIN; for MS-DOS 6, it's on the supplemental disks, while PC DOS 6 had it in the base install. Windows NT 32-bit, and OS/2 have Edlin.
EMM386
The EMM386 command enables or disables EMM386 expanded-memory support on a computer with an 80386 or higher processor.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
ERASE
See: DEL and ERASE
EXE2BIN
Converts an executable (.exe) file into a binary file with the extension .com, which is a memory image of the program.
The size of the resident code and data sections combined in the input .exe file must be less than 64 KB. The file must also have no stack segment.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 through 5. It is available separately for version 6 on the Supplemental Disk.
EXIT
Exits the current command processor. If the exit is used at the primary command, it has no effect unless in a DOS window under Microsoft Windows, in which case the window is closed and the user returns to the desktop.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
EXPAND
The Microsoft File Expansion Utility is used to uncompress one or more compressed cabinet files (.CAB). The command dates back to 1990 and was supplied on floppy disc for MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
FAKEMOUS
FAKEMOUS is an IBM PS/2 mouse utility used with AccessDOS. It is included on the MS-DOS 6 Supplemental Disk.
AccessDOS assists persons with disabilities.
FASTHELP
Provides information for MS-DOS commands.
FASTOPEN
A command that provides accelerated access to frequently-used files and directories.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 and later.
FC
Show differences between any two files, or any two sets of files.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later – primarily non-IBM releases.
FDISK
The FDISK command manipulates hard disk partition tables. The name derives from IBM's habit of calling hard drives fixed disks. FDISK has the ability to display information about, create, and delete DOS partitions or logical DOS drive. It can also install a standard master boot record on the hard drive.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later and IBM PC DOS 2.0 releases and later.
FIND
The FIND command is a filter to find lines in the input data stream that contain or don't contain a specified string and send these to the output data stream. It may also be used as a pipe.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
FINDSTR
The FINDSTR command is a GREP-oriented FIND-like utility. Among its uses is the logical-OR lacking in FIND.
would find all TXT files with one or more of the above-listed words YES, NO, MAYBE.
FOR
Iteration: repeats a command for each out of a specified set of files.
The FOR loop can be used to parse a file or the output of a command.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
FORMAT
Deletes the FAT entries and the root directory of the drive/partition, and reformats it for MS-DOS. In most cases, this should only be used on floppy drives or other removable media. This command can potentially erase everything on a computer's drive.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
GOTO
The Goto command transfers execution to a specified label. Labels are specified at the beginning of a line, with a colon ().
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
Used in Batch files.
GRAFTABL
The GRAFTABL command enables the display of an extended character set in graphics mode.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3 through 5.
GRAPHICS
A TSR program to enable the sending of graphical screen dump to printer by pressing <Print Screen>.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later and IBM PC DOS releases 2 and later.
HELP
Gives help about DOS commands.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 thru Windows XP. Full-screen command help is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later. Beginning with Windows XP, the command processor "DOS" offers builtin-help for commands by using (e.g. )
IF
IF is a conditional statement, that allows branching of the program execution. It evaluates the specified condition, and only if it is true, then it executes the remainder of the command line. Otherwise, it skips the remainder of the line and continues with next command line.
Used in Batch files.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
INTERSVR and INTERLNK
In MS-DOS; filelink in DR-DOS.
Network PCs using a null modem cable or LapLink cable. The server-side version of InterLnk, it also immobilizes the machine it's running on as it is an active app (As opposed to a TSR app) which must be running for any transfer to take place. DR-DOS' filelink is executed on both the client and server.
New in PC DOS 5.02, MS-DOS 6.0.
JOIN
The JOIN command attaches a drive letter to a specified directory on another drive. The opposite can be achieved via the SUBST command.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3 through 5. It is available separately for versions 6.2 and later on the Supplemental Disk.
KEYB
The KEYB command is used to select a keyboard layout.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 and later.
From DOS 3.0 through 3.21, there are instead per-country commands, namely KEYBFR, KEYBGR, KEYBIT, KEYBSP and KEYBUK.
LABEL
Changes the label on a logical drive, such as a hard disk partition or a floppy disk.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.1 and later and IBM PC DOS releases 3 and later.
LINK4
Microsoft 8086 Object Linker
LOADFIX
Loads a program above the first 64K of memory, and runs the program. The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later. It is included only in MS-DOS/PC DOS. DR-DOS used memmax, which opened or closed lower, upper, and video memory access, to block the lower 64K of memory.
LOADHIGH and LH
A command that loads a program into the upper memory area.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
It is called hiload in DR-DOS.
MD or MKDIR
Makes a new directory. The parent of the directory specified will be created if it does not already exist.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
MEM
Displays memory usage. It is capable of displaying program size and status, memory in use, and internal drivers. It is an external command.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 4 and later.
MEMMAKER
Starting with version 6, MS-DOS included the external program MemMaker which was used to free system memory (especially Conventional memory) by automatically reconfiguring the AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS files. This was usually done by moving TSR programs and device drivers to the upper memory. The whole process required two system restarts. Before the first restart the user was asked whether to enable EMS Memory, since use of expanded memory required a reserved 64KiB region in upper memory. The first restart inserted the SIZER.EXE program which gauged the memory needed by each TSR or Driver. MemMaker would then calculate the optimal Driver and TSR placement in upper memory and modify the AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS accordingly, and reboot the second time.
MEMMAKER.EXE and SIZER.EXE were developed for Microsoft by Helix Software Company and were eliminated starting in MS-DOS 7 (Windows 95); however, they could be obtained from Microsoft's FTP server as part of the OLDDOS.EXE package, alongside other tools.
PC DOS uses another program called RamBoost to optimize memory, working either with PC DOS's HIMEM/EMM386 or a third-party memory manager. RamBoost was licensed to IBM by Central Point Software.
MIRROR
The MIRROR command saves disk storage information that can be used to recover accidentally erased files.
The command is available in MS-DOS version 5. It is available separately for versions 6.2 and later on Supplemental Disk.
MODE
Configures system devices. Changes graphics modes, adjusts keyboard settings, prepares code pages, and sets up port redirection.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later and IBM PC DOS releases 1 and later.
MORE
The MORE command paginates text, so that one can view files containing more than one screen of text. More may also be used as a filter. While viewing MORE text, the return key displays the next line, the space bar displays the next page.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
MOVE
Moves files or renames directories.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
DR-DOS used a separate command for renaming directories, rendir.
MSAV
A command that scans the computer for known viruses.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
MSBACKUP
The MSBACKUP command is used to backup or restore one or more files from one disk to another.
The New York Times said that MSBACKUP "is much better and faster than the old BACKUP command used in earlier versions of DOS, but it does lack some of the advanced features found in backup software packages that are sold separately. There is another offering, named MWBACKUP, that is GUI-oriented. It was introduced for Windows for Workgroups (3.11).
The MSBACKUP command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
MSCDEX
MSCDEX is a driver executable which allows DOS programs to recognize, read, and control CD-ROMs.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
MSD
The MSD command provides detailed technical information about the computer's hardware and software. MSD was new in MS-DOS 6; the PC DOS version of this command is QCONFIG. The command appeared first in Word2, and then in Windows 3.10.
MSHERC
The MSHERC.COM (also QBHERC.COM) was a TSR (Terminate and Stay Resident) graphics driver supplied with Microsoft QuickC, QuickBASIC, and the C Compiler, to allow use of the Hercules adapter high-resolution graphics capability (720 x 348, 2 colors).
NLSFUNC
Loads extended Nationalization and Localization Support from COUNTRY.SYS, and changed the codepage of drivers and system modules resident in RAM.
In later versions of DR-DOS 6, NLSFUNC relocated itself into the HiMem area, thereby freeing a portion of the nearly invaluable lower 640KiB that constituted the ”conventional” memory available to software.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 and later.
PATH
Displays or sets a search path for executable files.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
PAUSE
Suspends processing of a batch program and displays the message , if not given other text to display.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
PING
Allows the user to test the availability of a network connection to a specified host. Hostnames are usually resolved to IP addresses.
It is not included in many DOS versions; typically ones with network stacks will have it as a diagnostic tool.
POWER
The POWER command is used to turn power management on and off, report the status of power management, and set levels of power conservation. It is an external command implemented as POWER.EXE.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
PRINT
The PRINT command adds or removes files in the print queue. This command was introduced in MS-DOS version 2. Before that there was no built-in support for background printing files. The user would usually use the copy command to copy files to LPT1.
PRINTFIX
PROMPT
The command allows the user to change the prompt in the command screen. The default prompt is (i.e. ), which displays the drive and current path as the prompt, but can be changed to anything. , displays the current system date as the prompt. Type in the cmd screen for help on this function.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later and IBM PC DOS releases 2.1 and later.
PS
A utility inspired by the UNIX/XENIX ps command. It also provides a full-screen mode, similar to the top utility on UNIX systems.
QBASIC
An integrated development environment and BASIC interpreter.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
RD or RMDIR
Remove a directory (delete a directory); by default the directories must be empty of files for the command to succeed.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
The deltree command in some versions of MS-DOS and all versions of Windows 9x removes non-empty directories.
RECOVER
A primitive filesystem error recovery utility included in MS-DOS / IBM PC DOS.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 through 5.
REM
Remark (comment) command, normally used within a batch file, and for DR-DOS, PC/MS-DOS 6 and above, in CONFIG.SYS. This command is processed by the command processor. Thus, its output can be redirected to create a zero-byte file. REM is useful in logged sessions or screen-captures. One might add comments by way of labels, usually starting with double-colon (::). These are not processed by the command processor.
REN
The REN command renames a file. Unlike the move command, this command cannot be used to rename subdirectories, or rename files across drives. Mass renames can be accomplished by the use of the wildcards characters asterisk (*) and question mark (?).
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
REPLACE
A command that is used to replace one or more existing computer files or add new files to a target directory.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later.
RESTORE
See: BACKUP and RESTORE
SCANDISK
Disk diagnostic utility. Scandisk was a replacement for the chkdsk utility, starting with MS-DOS version 6.2 and later. Its primary advantages over chkdsk is that it is more reliable and has the ability to run a surface scan which finds and marks bad clusters on the disk. It also provided mouse point-and-click TUI, allowing for interactive session to complement command-line batch run.
chkdsk had surface scan and bad cluster detection functionality included, and was used again on Windows NT-based operating systems.
SELECT
The SELECT command formats a disk and installs country-specific information and keyboard codes.
It was initially only available with IBM PC DOS. The version included with PC DOS 3.0 and 3.1 is hard-coded to transfer the operating system from A: to B:, while from PC DOS 3.2 onward you can specify the source and destination, and can be used to install DOS to the harddisk.
The version included with MS-DOS 4 and PC-DOS 4 is no longer a simple command-line utility, but a full-fledged installer.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 and 4 and IBM PC DOS releases 3 through 4.
This command is no longer included in DOS Version 5 and later, where it has been replaced by SETUP.
SET
Sets environment variables.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
cmd.exe in Windows NT 2000, 4DOS, 4OS2, 4NT, and a number of third-party solutions allow direct entry of environment variables from the command prompt. From at least Windows 2000, the set command allows for the evaluation of strings into variables, thus providing inter alia a means of performing integer arithmetic.
SETUP
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
This command does a computer setup. With all computers running DOS versions 5 and
later, it runs the computer setup, such as Windows 95 setup and Windows 98 setup.
SETVER
SetVer is a TSR program designed to return a different value to the version of DOS that is running. This allows programs that look for a specific version of DOS to run under a different DOS.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
SHARE
Installs support for file sharing and locking capabilities.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3 and later.
SHIFT
The SHIFT command increases number of replaceable parameters to more than the standard ten for use in batch files.
This is done by changing the position of replaceable parameters. It replaces each of the replacement parameters with the subsequent one (e.g. with , with , etc.).
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
SIZER
The external command SIZER.EXE is not intended to be started directly from the command prompt. Is used by MemMaker during the memory-optimization process.
SMARTDRV
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
SORT
A filter to sort lines in the input data stream and send them to the output data stream. Similar to the Unix command sort. Handles files up to 64k. This sort is always case insensitive.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
SUBST
A utility to map a subdirectory to a drive letter. The opposite can be achieved via the JOIN command.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.1 and later.
SYS
A utility to make a volume bootable. Sys rewrites the Volume Boot Code (the first sector of the partition that SYS is acting on) so that the code, when executed, will look for IO.SYS. SYS also copies the core DOS system files, IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS, and COMMAND.COM, to the volume. SYS does not rewrite the Master Boot Record, contrary to widely held belief.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
TELNET
The Telnet Client is a tool for developers and administrators to help manage and test network connectivity.
TIME
Display the system time and waits for the user to enter a new time. Complements the DATE command.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
TITLE
Enables a user to change the title of their MS-DOS window.
TREE
It is an external command, graphically displays the path of each directory and sub-directories on the specified drive.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later and IBM PC DOS releases 2 and later.
TRUENAME
Internal command that expands the name of a file, directory, or drive, and display its absolute pathname as the result. It will expand relative pathnames, SUBST drives, and JOIN directories, to find the actual directory.
For example, in DOS 7.1, if the current directory is C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM, then
The argument does not need to refer to an existing file or directory: TRUENAME will output the absolute pathname as if it did. Also TRUENAME does not search in the PATH.
For example, in DOS 5, if the current directory is C:\TEMP, then TRUENAME command.com will display C:\TEMP\COMMAND.COM (which does not exist), not C:\DOS\COMMAND.COM (which does and is in the PATH).
This command displays the UNC pathnames of mapped network or local CD drives. This command is an undocumented DOS command. The help switch "/?" defines it as a "Reserved command name". It is available in MS-DOS version 5.00 and later, including the DOS 7 and 8 in Windows 95/98/ME. The C library function realpath performs this function. The Microsoft Windows NT command processors do not support this command, including the versions of command.com for NT.
TYPE
Displays a file. The more command is frequently used in conjunction with this command, e.g. type long-text-file | more. TYPE can be used to concatenate files (); however this won't work for large files—use copy command instead.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 and later.
UNDELETE
Restores file previously deleted with del. By default all recoverable files in the working directory are restored; options are used to change this behavior. If the MS-DOS mirror TSR program is used, then deletion tracking files are created and can be used by undelete.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
UNFORMAT
The UNFORMAT command is used to undo the effects of formatting a disk.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
VER
An internal DOS command, that reports the DOS version presently running, and since MS-DOS 5, whether DOS is loaded high.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
VERIFY
Enables or disables the feature to determine if files have been correctly written to disk. If no parameter is provided, the command will display the current setting.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
VOL
An internal command that displays the disk volume label and serial number.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later.
VSAFE
A TSR program that continuously monitors the computer for viruses.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later.
XCOPY
Copy entire directory trees. Xcopy is a version of the copy command that can move files and directories from one location to another.
XCOPY usage and attributes can be obtained by typing in the DOS Command line.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later.
See also
:Category:Windows commands
Command-line interface
List of CONFIG.SYS directives
Timeline of DOS operating systems
References
Further reading
External links
Command-Line Reference : Microsoft TechNet Database "Command-Line Reference"
The MS-DOS 6 Technical Reference on TechNet contains the official Microsoft MS-DOS 6 command reference documention.
DR-DOS 7.03 online manual
MDGx MS-DOS Undocumented + Hidden Secrets
There are several guides to DOS commands available that are licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License:
The FreeDOS Spec at SourceForge is a plaintext specification, written in 1999, for how DOS commands should work in FreeDOS
MS-DOS commands
Reference for windows commands with examples
A Collection of Undocumented and Obscure Features in Various MS-DOS Versions
DOS commands
DOS commands
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherokee%20language
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Cherokee language
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Cherokee or Tsalagi (, ) is an endangered-to-moribund Iroquoian language and the native language of the Cherokee people. Ethnologue states that there were 1,520 Cherokee speakers out of 376,000 Cherokee in 2018, while a tally by the three Cherokee tribes in 2019 recorded ~2,100 speakers. The number of speakers is in decline. About eight fluent speakers die each month, and only a handful of people under the age of 40 are fluent. The dialect of Cherokee in Oklahoma is "definitely endangered", and the one in North Carolina is "severely endangered" according to UNESCO. The Lower dialect, formerly spoken on the South Carolina–Georgia border, has been extinct since about 1900. The dire situation regarding the future of the two remaining dialects prompted the Tri-Council of Cherokee tribes to declare a state of emergency in June 2019, with a call to enhance revitalization efforts.
Around 200 speakers of the Eastern (also referred to as the Middle or Kituwah) dialect remain in North Carolina and language preservation efforts include the New Kituwah Academy, a bilingual immersion school. The largest remaining group of Cherokee speakers is centered around Tahlequah, Oklahoma, where the Western (Overhill or Otali) dialect predominates. The Cherokee Immersion School (Tsalagi Tsunadeloquasdi) in Tahlequah serves children in federally recognized tribes from pre-school up to grade 6.
Cherokee is polysynthetic, the only Southern Iroquoian language, and it uses a unique syllabary writing system. As a polysynthetic language, Cherokee is highly different from Indo-European languages such as English, French, or Spanish, and can be difficult for adult learners to acquire. A single Cherokee word can convey ideas that would require multiple English words to express, including the context of the assertion, connotations about the speaker, the action, and the object of the action. The morphological complexity of the Cherokee language is best exhibited in verbs, which comprise approximately 75% of the language, as opposed to only 25% of the English language. Verbs must contain at minimum a pronominal prefix, a verb root, an aspect suffix, and a modal suffix.
Extensive documentation of the language exists, as it is the indigenous language of North America in which the most literature has been published. Such publications include a Cherokee dictionary and grammar as well as several editions of the New Testament and Psalms of the Bible and the Cherokee Phoenix (, ), the first newspaper published by Native Americans in the United States and the first published in a Native American language.
Classification
Cherokee is an Iroquoian language, and the only Southern Iroquoian language spoken today. Linguists believe that the Cherokee people migrated to the southeast from the Great Lakes region about three thousand years ago, bringing with them their language. Despite the three-thousand-year geographic separation, the Cherokee language today still shows some similarities to the languages spoken around the Great Lakes, such as Mohawk, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora.
Some researchers (such as Thomas Whyte) have suggested the homeland of the proto-Iroquoian language resides in Appalachia. Whyte contends, based on linguistic and molecular studies, that proto-Iroquoian speakers participated in cultural and economic exchanges along the north–south axis of the Appalachian Mountains. The divergence of Southern Iroquoian (which Cherokee is the only known branch of) from the Northern Iroquoian languages occurred approximately 4,000-3,000 years ago as Late Archaic proto-Iroquoian speaking peoples became more sedentary with the advent of horticulture, advancement of lithic technologies and the emergence of social complexity in the Eastern Woodlands. In the subsequent millennia, the Northern Iroquoian and Southern Iroquoian would be separated by various Algonquin and Siouan speaking peoples as linguistic, religious, social and technological practices from the Algonquin to the north and east and the Siouans to the west from the Ohio Valley would come to be practiced by peoples in the Chesapeake region, as well as parts of the Carolinas.
History
Literacy
Before the development of the Cherokee syllabary in the 1820s, Cherokee was an oral language only. The Cherokee syllabary is a syllabary invented by Sequoyah to write the Cherokee language in the late 1810s and early 1820s. His creation of the syllabary is particularly noteworthy in that he could not previously read any script. Sequoyah had some contact with English literacy and the Roman alphabet through his proximity to Fort Loundon, where he engaged in trade with Europeans. He was exposed to English literacy through his white father. His limited understanding of the Roman alphabet, including the ability to recognize the letters of his name, may have aided him in the creation of the Cherokee syllabary. When developing the written language, Sequoyah first experimented with logograms, but his system later developed into a syllabary. In his system, each symbol represents a syllable rather than a single phoneme; the 85 (originally 86) characters in the Cherokee syllabary provide a suitable method to write Cherokee. Some typeface syllables do resemble the Latin, Greek and even the Cyrillic scripts' letters, but the sounds are completely different (for example, the sound /a/ is written with a letter that resembles Latin D).
Around 1809, Sequoyah began work to create a system of writing for the Cherokee language. At first he sought to create a character for each word in the language. He spent a year on this effort, leaving his fields unplanted, so that his friends and neighbors thought he had lost his mind. His wife is said to have burned his initial work, believing it to be witchcraft. He finally realized that this approach was impractical because it would require too many pictures to be remembered. He then tried making a symbol for every idea, but this also caused too many problems to be practical.
Sequoyah did not succeed until he gave up trying to represent entire words and developed a written symbol for each syllable in the language. After approximately a month, he had a system of 86 characters. "In their present form, [typeface syllabary not the original handwritten Syllabary] many of the syllabary characters resemble Roman, Cyrillic or Greek letters or Arabic numerals," says Janine Scancarelli, a scholar of Cherokee writing, "but there is no apparent relationship between their sounds in other languages and in Cherokee."
Unable to find adults willing to learn the syllabary, he taught it to his daughter, Ayokeh (also spelled Ayoka). Langguth says she was only six years old at the time. He traveled to the Indian Reserves in the Arkansaw Territory where some Cherokee had settled. When he tried to convince the local leaders of the syllabary's usefulness, they doubted him, believing that the symbols were merely ad hoc reminders. Sequoyah asked each to say a word, which he wrote down, and then called his daughter in to read the words back. This demonstration convinced the leaders to let him teach the syllabary to a few more people. This took several months, during which it was rumored that he might be using the students for sorcery. After completing the lessons, Sequoyah wrote a dictated letter to each student, and read a dictated response. This test convinced the western Cherokee that he had created a practical writing system.
When Sequoyah returned east, he brought a sealed envelope containing a written speech from one of the Arkansas Cherokee leaders. By reading this speech, he convinced the eastern Cherokee also to learn the system, after which it spread rapidly. In 1825 the Cherokee Nation officially adopted the writing system. From 1828 to 1834, American missionaries assisted the Cherokee in using Sequoyah's original syllabary to develop type face Syllabary characters and print the Cherokee Phoenix, the first newspaper of the Cherokee Nation, with text in both Cherokee and English.
In 1826, the Cherokee National Council commissioned George Lowrey and David Brown to translate and print eight copies of the laws of the Cherokee Nation in the new Cherokee language typeface using Sequoyah's system, but not his original self-created handwritten syllable glyphs.
Once Albert Gallatin saw a copy of Sequoyah's syllabary, he found the syllabary superior to the English alphabet. Even though a Cherokee student must learn 86 syllables instead of 26 letters, they can read immediately. Students could accomplish in a few weeks what students of English writing could learn in two years.
In 1824, the General Council of the Eastern Cherokee awarded Sequoyah a large silver medal in honor of the syllabary. According to Davis, one side of the medal bore his image surrounded by the inscription in English, "Presented to George Gist by the General Council of the Cherokee for his ingenuity in the invention of the Cherokee Alphabet." The reverse side showed two long-stemmed pipes and the same inscription written in Cherokee. Supposedly, Sequoyah wore the medal throughout the rest of his life and it was buried with him.
By 1825, the Bible and numerous religious hymns and pamphlets, educational materials, legal documents and books were translated into the Cherokee language. Thousands of Cherokee became syllabic and the syllabicy rate for Cherokee in the original syllabary, as well as the typefaced syllabary, was higher in the Cherokee Nation than that of literacy of whites in the English alphabet in the United States.
Though use of the Cherokee syllabary declined after many of the Cherokee were forcibly removed to Indian Territory, present-day Oklahoma, it has survived in private correspondence, renderings of the Bible, and descriptions of Indian medicine and now can be found in books and on the internet among other places.
Geographic distribution
The language remains concentrated in some Oklahoma communities and communities like Big Cove and Snowbird in North Carolina.
Dialects
At the time of European contact, there were three major dialects of Cherokee: Lower, Middle, and Overhill. The Lower dialect, formerly spoken on the South Carolina-Georgia border, has been extinct since about 1900. Of the remaining two dialects, the Middle dialect (Kituwah) is spoken by the Eastern band on the Qualla Boundary, and retains ~200 speakers. The Overhill, or Western, dialect is spoken in eastern Oklahoma and by the Snowbird Community in North Carolina by ~1,300 people. The Western dialect is most widely used and is considered the main dialect of the language. Both dialects have had English influence, with the Overhill, or Western dialect showing some Spanish influence as well.
The now extinct Lower dialect spoken by the inhabitants of the Lower Towns in the vicinity of the South Carolina–Georgia border had r as the liquid consonant in its inventory, while both the contemporary Kituhwa dialect spoken in North Carolina and the Overhill dialect contain l. Only Oklahoma Cherokee developed tone. Both the Lower dialect and the Kituhwa dialect have a "ts" sound in place of the "tl" sound of the Overhill dialect. For instance, the word for 'it is cold (outside)' is (ujʌ̃tˤɑ or [ujʌ̃tl̥á]) in the Overhill dialect, but (ujʌ̃t͡sɑ) in the Kituhwa dialect.
Language drift
There are two main dialects of Cherokee spoken by modern speakers. The Giduwa (or Kituwah) dialect (Eastern Band) and the Otali dialect (also called the Overhill dialect) spoken in Oklahoma. The Otali dialect has drifted significantly from Sequoyah's syllabary in the past 150 years, and many contracted and borrowed words have been adopted into the language. These noun and verb roots in Cherokee, however, can still be mapped to Sequoyah's syllabary. There are more than 85 syllables in use by modern Cherokee speakers. Modern Cherokee speakers who speak Otali employ 122 distinct syllables in Oklahoma.
Status and preservation efforts
In 2019, the Tri-Council of Cherokee tribes declared a state of emergency for the language due to the threat of it going extinct, calling for the enhancement of revitalization programs. The language retains about 1,500 to 2,100 Cherokee speakers, but an average of eight fluent speakers die each month, and only a handful of people under 40 years of age are fluent as of 2019. In 1986, the literacy rate for first language speakers was 15–20% who could read and 5% who could write, according to the 1986 Cherokee Heritage Center. A 2005 survey determined that the Eastern band had 460 fluent speakers. Ten years later, the number was believed to be 200.
Cherokee is "definitely endangered" in Oklahoma and "severely endangered" in North Carolina according to UNESCO. Cherokee has been the co-official language of the Cherokee Nation alongside English since a 1991 legislation officially proclaimed this under the Act Relating to the Tribal Policy for the Promotion and Preservation of Cherokee Language, History, and Culture. Cherokee is also recognized as the official language of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians. As Cherokee is official, the entire constitution of the United Keetoowah Band is available in both English and Cherokee. As an official language, any tribal member may communicate with the tribal government in Cherokee or English, English translation services are provided for Cherokee speakers, and both Cherokee and English are used when the tribe provides services, resources, and information to tribal members or when communicating with the tribal council. The 1991 legislation allows the political branch of the nation to maintain Cherokee as a living language. Because they are within the Cherokee Nation tribal jurisdiction area, hospitals and health centers such as the Three Rivers Health Center in Muscogee, Oklahoma provide Cherokee language translation services.
Education
In 2008 The Cherokee Nation instigated a ten-year language preservation plan that involved growing new fluent speakers of the Cherokee language from childhood on up through school immersion programs, as well as a collaborative community effort to continue to use the language at home. This plan was part of an ambitious goal that in 50 years, 80 percent or more of the Cherokee people will be fluent in the language. The Cherokee Preservation Foundation has invested $4.5 million into opening schools, training teachers, and developing curricula for language education, as well as initiating community gatherings where the language can be actively used. They have accomplished: "Curriculum development, teaching materials and teacher training for a total immersion program for children, beginning when they are preschoolers, that enables them to learn Cherokee as their first language. The participating children and their parents learn to speak and read together. The Tribe operates the Kituwah Academy". Formed in 2006, the Kituwah Preservation & Education Program (KPEP) on the Qualla Boundary focuses on language immersion programs for children from birth to fifth grade, developing cultural resources for the general public and community language programs to foster the Cherokee language among adults.
There is also a Cherokee language immersion school in Tahlequah, Oklahoma that educates students from pre-school through eighth grade. A second campus was added in November 2021, when the school purchased Greasy School in Greasy, Oklahoma, located in southern Adair County ten miles south of Stilwell. Situated in largest area of Cherokee speakers in the world, the opportunity for that campus is for students to spend the day in an immersion school and then return to a Cherokee-speaking home.
Several universities offer Cherokee as a second language, including the University of Oklahoma, Northeastern State University, and Western Carolina University. Western Carolina University (WCU) has partnered with the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBCI) to promote and restore the language through the school's Cherokee Studies program, which offers classes in and about the language and culture of the Cherokee Indians. WCU and the EBCI have initiated a ten-year language revitalization plan consisting of: (1) a continuation of the improvement and expansion of the EBCI Atse Kituwah Cherokee Language Immersion School, (2) continued development of Cherokee language learning resources, and (3) building of Western Carolina University programs to offer a more comprehensive language training curriculum.
Phonology
The family of Iroquoian languages has a unique phonological inventory. Unlike most languages, the Cherokee inventory of consonants lacks the labial sounds p, b, f, and v. Cherokee does, however, have one labial consonant m, but it is rare, appearing in no more than ten native words. In fact, the Lower dialect does not produce m at all. Instead, it uses w.
In the case of p, qw is often substituted, as in the name of the Cherokee Wikipedia, Wigiqwediya. Some words may contain sounds not reflected in the given phonology: for instance, the modern Oklahoma use of the loanword "automobile", with the and sounds of English.
Consonants
As with many Iroquoian languages, Cherokee's phonemic inventory is small. The consonants for North Carolina Cherokee are given in the table below. The consonants of all Iroquoian languages pattern so that they may be grouped as (oral) obstruents, sibilants, laryngeals, and resonants (Lounsbury 1978:337).
Notes:
The stops /t, k, kʷ/ and affricates /t͡s, t͡ɬ/ are voiced in the beginning of syllables and between vowels: [d, g, gʷ, d͡z, d͡ɮ]. Before /h/, they surface as aspirated stops: [tʰ, kʰ, kʷʰ, t͡sʰ], except /t͡ɬ/ which surfaces as a plain voiceless affricate [t͡ɬ] or fricative [ɬ] in some Oklahoma Cherokee speakers. These aspirated allophones are felt as separate phonemes by native speakers and are often reflected as such in the orthographies (in romanization or syllabary).
/t͡s/ is palatalized as [t͡ɕ ⁓ t͡ʃ] (voiced allophones: [d͡ʑ ⁓ d͡ʒ]) in the Oklahoma dialects, but [t͡s] before /h/ + obstruent after vowel deletion: jⱥ-hdlv́vga > tsdlv́vga "you are sick".
/t͡ɬ/ has merged with /t͡s/ in most North Carolina dialects.
[g] (the voiced allophone of /k/) can also be lenified to [ɣ], and [gʷ] (the voiced allophone of /kʷ/) to [ɣʷ ⁓ w].
The sonorants /n, l, j, w/ are devoiced when preceding or following /h/, with varying degrees of allophony: [n̥, l̥⁓ɬ, j̥⁓ç, w̥⁓ʍ⁓ɸ].
/m/ is the only true labial. It occurs only in a dozen native words and is not reconstructed for Proto-Iroquoian.
/s/ is realized as [ʃ] or even [ʂ] in North Carolina dialects. After a short vowel, /s/ is always preceded by a faint /h/, generally not spelled in the romanized orthographies.
/ʔ/ and /h/, including the pre-aspiration /h/ mentioned above, participate in complex rules of laryngeal and tonal alternations, often surfacing as various tones instead. Ex: h-vhd-a > hvhda "use it!" but g-vhd-íha > gvv̀díha "I am using it" with a lowfall tone; wi-hi-gaht-i > hwikti "you're heading there" but wi-ji-gaht-i > wijigáati "I am heading there" with a falling tone.
Orthography
There are two main competing orthographies, depending on how plain and aspirated stops (including affricates) are represented:
In the "d/t system" orthography, plain stops are represented by English voiced stops (d, g, gw, j, dl) and aspirated stops by English voiceless stops (t, k, kw, c, tl). This orthography is favored by native speakers.
In the "t/th system" orthography, plain stops are represented by voiceless stops instead, and aspirated stops by sequences of voiceless stops + h (th, kh, khw/kwh, ch, thl/tlh). This orthography is favored by linguists.
Another orthography, used in Holmes (1977), doesn't distinguish plain stops from aspirated stops for /t͡sa/ and /kw/ and uses ts and qu for both modes. Spellings working from the syllabary rather than from the sounds often behave similarly, /t͡s/ and /kʷ/ being the only two stop series not having separate letters for plain and aspirated before any vowel in Sequoyah script. Ex: ᏌᏊ saquu [saàgʷu], ᏆᎾ quana [kʷʰana].
Vowels
There are six short vowels and six long vowels in the Cherokee inventory. As with all Iroquoian languages, this includes a nasalized vowel (Lounsbury 1978:337). In the case of Cherokee, the nasalized vowel is a mid central vowel usually represented as v and is pronounced , that is as a schwa vowel like the unstressed "a" in the English word "comma" plus the nasalization. It is similar to the nasalized vowel in the French word un which means "one".
/u/ is weakly rounded and often realized as [ɯ ⁓ ʉ].
Word-final vowels are short and nasalized, and receive an automatic high or high-falling tone: wado [wadṍ] 'thank you'. They are often dropped in casual speech: gaáda [gaátʰ] 'dirt'. When deletion happens, trailing /ʔ/ and /h/ are also deleted and any resulting long vowel is further shortened: uùgoohvv́ʔi > uùgoohv́ 'he saw it'.
Short vowels are devoiced before /h/: digadóhdi [digadó̥hdĩ́]. But due to the phonological rules of vowel deletion, laryngeal metathesis and laryngeal alternation (see below), this environment is relatively rare.
Sequences of two non-identical vowels are disallowed and the vowel clash must be resolved. There are four strategies depending on the phonological and morphological environments:
the first vowel is kept: uù-aduulíha > uùduulíha 'he wants',
the second vowel is kept: hi-ééga > hééga 'you're going',
an epenthetic consonant is inserted: jii-uudalééʔa > jiiyuudalééʔa,
they merge in a different vowel or tone quality.
These make the identification of each individual morphemes often a difficult task:
Tone
Cherokee distinguishes six pitch patterns or tones, using four pitch levels. Two tones are level (low, high) and appear on short or long vowels. The other four are contour tones (rising, falling, lowfall, highrise) and appear on long vowels only.
There is no academic consensus on the notation of tone and length. Below are the main conventions, along with the standardized IPA notation.
The low tone is the default, unmarked tone.
The high tone is the marked tone. Some sources of high tone apply to the mora, others to the syllable. Complex morphophonological rules govern whether it can spread one mora to the left, to the right or at all. It has both lexical and morphological functions.
The rising and falling tones are secondary tones, i.e. combinations of low and high tones, deriving from moraic high tones and from high tone spread.
The lowfall tone mainly derives from glottal stop deletion after a long vowel, but also has important morphological functions (pronominal lowering, tonic/atonic alternation, laryngeal alternation).
The superhigh tone, also called "highfall" by Montgomery-Anderson, has a distinctive morphosyntactical function, primarily appearing on adjectives, nouns derived from verbs, and on subordinate verbs. It is mobile and falls on the rightmost long vowel. If the final short vowel is dropped and the superhigh tone becomes in word-final position, it is shortened and pronounced like a slightly higher final tone (notated as a̋ in most orthographies). There can only be one superhigh tone per word, constraint not shared by the other tones. For these reasons, this contour exhibits some accentual properties and has been referred to as an "accent" (or stress) in the literature.
While the tonal system is undergoing a gradual simplification in many areas, it remains important in meaning and is still held strongly by many, especially older, speakers. The syllabary displays neither tone nor vowel length, but as stated earlier regarding the paucity of minimal pairs, real cases of ambiguity are rare. The same goes for transliterated Cherokee (osiyo for [oosíyo], dohitsu for [tʰoòhiı̋ju] etc.), which is rarely written with any tone markers, except in dictionaries. Native speakers can tell the difference between written words based solely on context.
Phonological and morphophonological processes
Vowel deletion
Laryngeal alternation
H-metathesis
Pronominal lowering
Tonicity
Grammar
Cherokee, like many Native American languages, is polysynthetic, meaning that many morphemes may be linked together to form a single word, which may be of great length. Cherokee verbs, the most important word type, must contain as a minimum a pronominal prefix, a verb root, an aspect suffix, and a modal suffix. For example, the verb form ge:ga, 'I am going,' has each of these elements:
The pronominal prefix is g-, which indicates first person singular. The verb root is -e, 'to go.' The aspect suffix that this verb employs for the present-tense stem is -g-. The present-tense modal suffix for regular verbs in Cherokee is -a.
Cherokee has 17 verb tenses and 10 persons.
The following is a conjugation in the present tense of the verb to go. Please note that there is no distinction between dual and plural in the 3rd person.
The translation uses the present progressive ('at this time I am going'). Cherokee differentiates between progressive ('I am going') and habitual ('I go') more than English does.
The forms , , , , represent 'I often/usually go', 'you often/usually go', and 'she/he/it often/usually goes', respectively.
Verbs can also have prepronominal prefixes, reflexive prefixes, and derivative suffixes. Given all possible combinations of affixes, each regular verb can have 21,262 inflected forms.
Cherokee does not make gender distinctions. For example, can mean either 'she is speaking' or 'he is speaking.'
Pronouns and pronominal prefixes
Like many Native American languages, Cherokee has many pronominal prefixes that can index both subject and object. Pronominal prefixes always appear on verbs and can also appear on adjectives and nouns. There are two separate words which function as pronouns: aya 'I, me' and nihi 'you'.
Shape classifiers in verbs
Some Cherokee verbs require special classifiers which denote a physical property of the direct object. Only around 20 common verbs require one of these classifiers (such as the equivalents of 'pick up', 'put down', 'remove', 'wash', 'hide', 'eat', 'drag', 'have', 'hold', 'put in water', 'put in fire', 'hang up', 'be placed', 'pull along'). The classifiers can be grouped into five categories:
Live
Flexible (most common)
Long (narrow, not flexible)
Indefinite (solid, heavy relative to size), also used as default category
Liquid (or container of)
Example:
There have been reports that the youngest speakers of Cherokee are using only the indefinite forms, suggesting a decline in usage or full acquisition of the system of shape classification. Cherokee is the only Iroquoian language with this type of classificatory verb system, leading linguists to reanalyze it as a potential remnant of a noun incorporation system in Proto-Iroquoian. However, given the non-productive nature of noun incorporation in Cherokee, other linguists have suggested that classificatory verbs are the product of historical contact between Cherokee and non-Iroquoian languages, and instead that the noun incorporation system in Northern Iroquoian languages developed later.
Word order
Simple declarative sentences usually have a subject-object-verb word order. Negative sentences have a different word order. Adjectives come before nouns, as in English. Demonstratives, such as ('that') or ('this'), come at the beginning of noun phrases. Relative clauses follow noun phrases. Adverbs precede the verbs that they are modifying. For example, 'she's speaking loudly' is (literally, 'loud she's-speaking').
A Cherokee sentence may not have a verb as when two noun phrases form a sentence. In such a case, word order is flexible. For example, ('that man is my father'). A noun phrase might be followed by an adjective, such as in ('my father is big').
Orthography
Cherokee is written in an 85-character syllabary invented by Sequoyah (also known as Guest or George Gist). Many of the letters resemble the Latin letters they derive from, but have completely unrelated sound values; Sequoyah had seen English, Hebrew, and Greek writing but did not know how to read them.
Two other scripts used to write Cherokee are a simple Latin transliteration and a more precise system with Diacritical marks.
Description
Each of the characters represents one syllable, as in the Japanese kana and the Bronze Age Greek Linear B writing systems. The first six characters represent isolated vowel syllables. Characters for combined consonant and vowel syllables then follow. It is recited from left to right, top to bottom.
The charts below show the syllabary as arranged by Samuel Worcester along with his commonly used transliterations. He played a key role in the development of Cherokee printing from 1828 until his death in 1859.
Notes:
In the chart, ‘v’ represents a nasal vowel, .
The character Ꮩ do is shown upside-down in some fonts.
The transliteration working from the syllabary uses conventional consonants like qu, ts,..., and may differ from the ones used in the phonological orthographies (first column in the below chart, in the "d/t system").
The phonetic values of these characters do not equate directly to those represented by the letters of the Latin script. Some characters represent two distinct phonetic values (actually heard as different syllables), while others often represent different forms of the same syllable. Not all phonemic distinctions of the spoken language are represented:
Aspirated consonants are generally not distinguished from their plain counterpart. For example, while + vowel syllables are mostly differentiated from + vowel by use of different glyphs, syllables beginning with are all conflated with those beginning with .
Long vowels are not distinguished from short vowels. However, in more recent technical literature, length of vowels can actually be indicated using a colon, and other disambiguation methods for consonants (somewhat like the Japanese dakuten) have been suggested.
Tones are not marked.
Syllables ending in vowels, h, or glottal stop are undifferentiated. For example, the single symbol Ꮡ is used to represent both suú as in suúdáli, meaning 'six' (ᏑᏓᎵ), and súh as in súhdi, meaning 'fishhook' (ᏑᏗ).
There is no regular rule for representing consonant clusters. When consonants other than s, h, or glottal stop arise in clusters with other consonants, a vowel must be inserted, chosen either arbitrarily or for etymological reasons (reflecting an underlying etymological vowel, see vowel deletion for instance). For example, ᏧᎾᏍᏗ (tsu-na-s-di) represents the word juunsdi̋, meaning 'small (pl.), babies'. The consonant cluster ns is broken down by insertion of the vowel a, and is spelled as ᎾᏍ . The vowel is etymological as juunsdi̋ is composed of the morphemes di-uunii-asdii̋ʔi (DIST-3B.pl-small), where a is part of the root. The vowel is included in the transliteration, but is not pronounced.
As with some other underspecified writing systems (like Arabic), adult speakers can distinguish words by context.
Transliteration issues
Transliteration software that operates without access to or reference to context greater than a single character can have difficulties with some Cherokee words. For example, words that contain adjacent pairs of single letter symbols, that (without special provisions) would be combined when doing the back conversion from Latin script to Cherokee. Here are a few examples:
For these examples, the back conversion is likely to join s-a as sa or s-i as si. Transliterations sometimes insert an apostrophe to prevent this, producing itsalis'anedi (cf. Man'yoshu).
Other Cherokee words contain character pairs that entail overlapping transliteration sequences. Examples:
ᏀᎾ transliterates as nahna, yet so does ᎾᎿ. The former is nah-na, the latter is na-hna.
If the Latin script is parsed from left to right, longest match first, then without special provisions, the back conversion would be wrong for the latter. There are several similar examples involving these character combinations: naha nahe nahi naho nahu nahv.
A further problem encountered in transliterating Cherokee is that there are some pairs of different Cherokee words that transliterate to the same word in the Latin script. Here are some examples:
ᎠᏍᎡᏃ and ᎠᏎᏃ both transliterate to aseno
ᎨᏍᎥᎢ and ᎨᏒᎢ both transliterate to gesvi
Without special provision, a round trip conversion changes ᎠᏍᎡᏃ to ᎠᏎᏃ and changes ᎨᏍᎥᎢ to ᎨᏒᎢ.
Unicode
Cherokee was added to the Unicode Standard in September, 1999 with the release of version 3.0.
Blocks
The main Unicode block for Cherokee is U+13A0–U+13FF. It contains the script's upper-case syllables as well as six lower-case syllables.
The rest of the lower-case syllables are encoded at U+AB70–ABBF.
Fonts and digital platform support
A single Cherokee Unicode font, Plantagenet Cherokee, is supplied with macOS, version 10.3 (Panther) and later. Windows Vista also includes a Cherokee font. Several free Cherokee fonts are available including Digohweli, Donisiladv, and Noto Sans Cherokee. Some pan-Unicode fonts, such as Code2000, Everson Mono, and GNU FreeFont, include Cherokee characters. A commercial font, Phoreus Cherokee, published by TypeCulture, includes multiple weights and styles. The Cherokee Nation Language Technology Program supports "innovative solutions for the Cherokee language on all digital platforms including smartphones, laptops, desktops, tablets and social networks."
Vocabulary
Numbers
Cherokee uses Arabic numerals (0–9). The Cherokee council voted not to adopt Sequoyah's numbering system. Sequoyah created individual symbols for 1–20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100 as well as a symbol for three zeros for numbers in the thousands, and a symbol for six zeros for numbers in the millions. These last two symbols, representing ",000" and ",000,000", are made up of two separate symbols each. They have a symbol in common, which could be used as a zero in itself.
Days
Months
Colors
Word creation
The polysynthetic nature of the Cherokee language enables the language to develop new descriptive words in Cherokee to reflect or express new concepts. Some good examples are (, 'he argues repeatedly and on purpose with a purpose') corresponding to 'attorney' and (, 'the final catcher' or 'he catches them finally and conclusively') for 'policeman.'
Other words have been adopted from another language such as the English word gasoline, which in Cherokee is (). Other words were adopted from the languages of tribes who settled in Oklahoma in the early 1900s. One interesting and humorous example is the name of Nowata, Oklahoma deriving from nowata, a Delaware word for 'welcome' (more precisely the Delaware word is nuwita which can mean 'welcome' or 'friend' in the Delaware languages). The white settlers of the area used the name nowata for the township, and local Cherokee, being unaware that the word had its origins in the Delaware language, called the town () which means 'the water is all gone gone from here' – i.e. 'no water.'
Other examples of adopted words are () for 'coffee' and () for 'watch'; which led to (utana watsi, 'big watch') for clock.
Meaning expansion can be illustrated by the words for 'warm' and 'cold', which can be also extended to mean 'south' and 'north'. Around the time of the American Civil War, they were further extended to US party labels, Democratic and Republican, respectively.
List of countries in Cherokee
Despite Cherokee being classified as either a vulnerable or endangered language, there are words for foreign concepts (e.g foreign animals, groups of people, foreign plants, etc) and names for foreign cities, towns and countries. There is a list of countries and dependencies in Cherokee available here. The list includes both short and long names for every country and dependency in the world.
Samples
From the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
Notes
References
Bibliography
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Concerning the syllabary
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Further reading
Bruchac, Joseph. Aniyunwiya/Real Human Beings: An Anthology of Contemporary Cherokee Prose. Greenfield Center, N.Y.: Greenfield Review Press, 1995.
Cook, William Hinton (1979). A Grammar of North Carolina Cherokee. Ph.D. diss., Yale University. OCLC 7562394.
King, Duane H. (1975). A Grammar and Dictionary of the Cherokee Language. Ph.D. diss., University of Georgia. OCLC 6203735.
Lounsbury, Floyd G. (1978). "Iroquoian Languages". in Bruce G. Trigger (ed.). Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 15: Northeast. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 334–343. .
Munro, Pamela (ed.) (1996). Cherokee Papers from UCLA. UCLA Occasional Papers in Linguistics, no. 16. .
Pulte, William, and Durbin Feeling. 2001. "Cherokee". In: Garry, Jane, and Carl Rubino (eds.) Facts About the World's Languages: An Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages: Past and Present. New York: H. W. Wilson. (Viewed at the Rosetta Project)
Scancarelli, Janine (1987). Grammatical Relations and Verb Agreement in Cherokee. Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles. .
Scancarelli, Janine. "Cherokee Writing." The World's Writing Systems. 1998: Section 53.
External links
Cherokee-English Dictionary Online Database
Cherokee wordlist lookup
Cherokee Nation Dikaneisdi (Word List)
Cherokee numerals
Cherokee – Sequoyah transliteration system – online conversion tool
Unicode Chart
Cherokee Nation ᏣᎳᎩ ᎦᏬᏂᎯᏍᏗ ᏖᎩᎾᎶᏥ ᎤᎾᏙᏢᏅᎢ (Tsalagi Gawonihisdi teginalotsi unadotlvnvi / Cherokee Language Technology
Language archives, texts, audio, video
Cherokee Phoenix, bilingual newspaper in Cherokee and English
Cherokee Traditions digital archive, from Western Carolina University
Cherokee New Testament Online Online translation of the New Testament. Currently the largest Cherokee document on the internet.
Cherokee Language Texts, from the Boston Athenæum: Schoolcraft Collection of Books in Native American Languages. Digital Collection.
Language lessons and online instruction
Free online Cherokee classes from the Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma
Cherokee Language Online (Beginning dialogues, audio, flashcards and grammar from culturev.com)
Cherokee Language downloadable flashcard decks (Some based on culturev.com)
Mango Languages has free lessons via their website or app
Online Cherokee language classes, from Western Carolina University
Cherokee Language Program at Western Carolina University on Facebook, additional materials
CherokeeLessons.com (Hosts Creative Commons licensed materials including a textbook covering grammar and many hours of challenge/response based audio lesson files).
Cherokee language YouTube videos for beginners, by tsasuyeda
Cherokee speakers, Cherokee Nation
Iroquoian languages
Indigenous languages of Oklahoma
Sacred languages
Subject–object–verb languages
Indigenous languages of the North American Southeast
Indigenous languages of the North American eastern woodlands
Native American language revitalization
Tonal languages
Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)
Languages of North Carolina
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skive%20Municipality
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Skive Municipality
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Skive Municipality is a municipality (Danish, kommune) in Mid Jutland Region on Salling Peninsula, a part of the larger Jutland Peninsula in northwest Denmark. It covers an area of 688.09 km² (2013) and has a population of 46,938 (1 April 2014). Its mayor is Peder Christian Kirkegaard, a member of the Venstre political party.
The main town and the site of its municipal council is the city of Skive.
The Virksund Bridge (Virksundbroen) connects the municipality at the town of Virksund to the town of Sundstrup in Viborg municipality.
As of January 1, 2007, the original Skive municipality ceased to exist as a result of Kommunalreformen ("The Municipal Reform" of 2007). It was merged with the former Sallingsund, Spøttrup, and Sundsøre municipalities, to form the new Skive municipality. The old municipality had an area of 230 km² and a population of 27,919 (2005). Before the reform, the municipality was part of Viborg County.
Skive itself is a coastal tourist resort, at the mouth of the Karup River (Karup Å) and the Skive Fjord. As of 1992, the population was 19,711.
Politics
Municipal council
Skive's municipal council consists of 27 members, elected every four years.
Below are the municipal councils elected since the Municipal Reform of 2007.
Attractions
The 14th century Spøttrup Castle underwent extensive repairs in the 1940s and opened as a museum and medicinal herb garden.
Skive Art Museum (Skive Kunstmuseum) is housed in a building designed by Danish architect Leopold Teschl, who also designed the Skive Historical Museum. The art museum houses a broad collection of modern Danish art with special interest in expressive landscapes and New Realism painting. Also, the collection includes works by local artists, including Christen Dalsgaard, national romantic painter associated with the Golden Age of Danish Painting.
The Fur Museum is on the island of Fur, part of the Skive municipality. It features exhibits relating to the island of Fur, particularly fossils.
The Mønsted Limestone Caves south-west of the town of Skive are run by Denmark's nature-preservation group, Skov- og Naturstyrelse. As well as being a tourist attraction, the caves are used as a place to age cheese, which is then exported to Germany as "cavecheese". In winter, the caves are home to 10,000 bats.
References
Municipal statistics: NetBorger Kommunefakta, delivered from KMD aka Kommunedata (Municipal Data)
Municipal mergers and neighbors: Eniro new municipalities map
External links
Municipality's official website
The new Skive municipality's official website (Danish only)
Skive Skive Folkeblad - City Local Newspaper
Skive tourism bureau
Spøttrup Castle
Skive Art Museum
Mønsted Limestone Caves
Municipalities of the Central Denmark Region
Municipalities of Denmark
Populated places established in 2007
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saikaid%C5%8D
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Saikaidō
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is a Japanese geographical term. It means both an ancient division of the country and the main road running through it. Saikaido was one of the main circuits of the Gokishichidō system, which was originally established during the Asuka period.
This name identified the geographic region of Kyūshū and the islands of Tsushima and Iki. It consisted of nine ancient provinces and two islands. The provinces included Chikuzen, Chikugo, Buzen, Bungo, Hizen, Higo, Hyūga, Satsuma and Ōsumi.
See also
Comparison of past and present administrative divisions of Japan
Notes
References
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128
Road transport in Japan
Saikaido
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba%20language
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Yoruba language
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Yoruba (; Yor. ; Ajami: ) is a language spoken in West Africa, most prominently Southwestern Nigeria. It is spoken by the ethnic Yoruba people. The number of Yoruba speakers is stated as roughly 50 million, plus about 2 million second-language speakers. As a pluricentric language, it is primarily spoken in a dialectal area spanning Nigeria and Benin with smaller migrated communities in Cote d'Ivoire, Sierra Leone and The Gambia.
Yoruba vocabulary is also used in the Afro-Brazilian religion known as Candomblé, in the Caribbean religion of Santería in the form of the liturgical Lucumí language and various Afro-American religions of North America. Practitioners of these religions in the Americas no longer speak or understand the Yorùbá language, rather they use remnants of Yorùbá language for singing songs that for them are shrouded in mystery. Usage of a lexicon of Yorùbá words and short phrases during ritual is also common, but they have gone through changes due to the fact that Yorùbá is no longer a vernacular for them and fluency is not required.
As the principal Yoruboid language, Yoruba is most closely related to the languages Itsekiri (spoken in the Niger Delta) and Igala (spoken in central Nigeria).
History
Yoruba is classified among the Edekiri languages, which together with Itsekiri and the isolate Igala form the Yoruboid group of languages within the Volta–Niger branch of the Niger–Congo family.
The linguistic unity of the Niger–Congo family dates to deep prehistory, estimates ranging around 11000 years ago (the end of the Upper Paleolithic). In present-day Nigeria, it is estimated that there are over 50 million Yoruba primary and secondary language speakers as well as several other millions of speakers outside Nigeria, making it the most widely spoken African language outside of the continent.
Yoruboid languages
The Yoruba group is assumed to have developed out of undifferentiated Volta–Niger populations by the 1st millennium BC. Settlements of early Yoruba speakers are assumed to correspond to those found in the wider Niger area from about the 4th century BC, especially at Ife.
The North-West Yoruba dialects show more linguistic innovation than the Southeast and Central dialects. This, combined with the fact that the latter areas generally have older settlements, suggests a later date for migration into Northwestern Yorubaland. According to the Kay Williamson Scale, the following is the degree of relationship between Itsekiri and other Yoruboid dialects, using a compiled word list of the most common words. A similarity of 100% would mean a total overlap of two dialects, while similarity of 0 would mean two speech areas that have absolutely no relationship.
The result of the wordlist analysis shows that Itsekiri bears the strongest similarity to the South-East Yoruba dialects and most especially Ilaje and Ikale, at 80.4% and 82.3% similarity. According to the language assessment criteria of the International Language Assessment Conference (1992), only when a wordlist analysis shows a lexical similarity of below 70% are two speech forms considered to be different languages. An overlap of 70% and above indicates that both speech forms are the same language, although dialect intelligibility tests would need to be carried out to determine how well speakers of one dialect can understand the other speech form.
Thus while the analysis shows that Igala, with an overlap of 60% is a completely different language, all other Yoruboid speech forms are merely dialects of the same Language.
Varieties
The Yoruba dialect continuum itself consists of several dialects. The various Yoruba dialects in the Yorubaland of Nigeria can be classified into five major dialect areas: Northwest, Northeast, Central, Southwest and Southeast. Clear boundaries cannot be drawn, peripheral areas of dialectal regions often having some similarities to adjoining dialects.
North-West Yoruba (NWY)
Egba, Ibadan, Yewa, Ọyọ, Lagos/Eko.
North-East Yoruba (NEY)
Yagba, Owe, Ijumu, Oworo, Gbede, Abunu, Oworo
Central Yoruba (CY)
Igbomina, Ijesha, Ifẹ, Ekiti, Akurẹ, Ẹfọn, Western Akoko
South-West Yoruba (SWY)
Ketu, Awori, Sakété, Ifè (Togo), Idasha, Ipokia/Anago.
South-East Yoruba (SEY)
Ikale, Ilaje, Ondo City, Ọwọ, Idanre, Remo, Ijẹbu.
North-West Yoruba was historically spoken in the Ọyọ Empire. In NWY dialects, Proto-Yoruba velar fricative and labialized voiced velar /gʷ/ have merged into /w/; the upper vowels /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ were raised and merged with /i/ and /u/, just as their nasal counterparts, resulting in a vowel system with seven oral and three nasal vowels.
South-East Yoruba was probably associated with the expansion of the Benin Empire after c. 1450. In contrast to NWY, lineage and descent are largely multilineal and cognatic, and the division of titles into war and civil is unknown. Linguistically, SEY has retained the /ɣ/ and /gw/ contrast, while it has lowered the nasal vowels /ĩ/ and /ʊ̃/ to /ɛ̃/ and /ɔ̃/, respectively. SEY has collapsed the second and third person plural pronominal forms; thus, àn án wá can mean either 'you (pl.) came' or 'they came' in SEY dialects, whereas NWY for example has ẹ wá 'you (pl.) came' and wọ́n wá 'they came', respectively. The emergence of a plural of respect may have prevented the coalescence of the two in NWY dialects.
Central Yoruba forms a transitional area in that the lexicon has much in common with NWY, and it shares many ethnographical features with SEY. Its vowel system is the least innovative (most stable) of the three dialect groups, having retained nine oral-vowel contrasts and six or seven nasal vowels, and an extensive vowel harmony system. Peculiar to Central and Eastern (NEY, SEY) Yoruba also, is the ability to begin words with the vowel [ʊ:] which in Western Yoruba has been changed to [ɪ:]
Literary Yoruba
Literary Yoruba, also known as Standard Yoruba, Yoruba koiné, and common Yoruba, is a separate member of the dialect cluster. It is the written form of the language, the standard variety learned at school and that spoken by newsreaders on the radio. Standard Yoruba has its origin in the 1850s, when Samuel A. Crowther, the first native African Anglican bishop, published a Yoruba grammar and started his translation of the Bible. Though for a large part based on the Ọyọ and Ibadan dialects, Standard Yoruba incorporates several features from other dialects. It also has some features peculiar to itself, for example, the simplified vowel harmony system, as well as foreign structures, such as calques from English which originated in early translations of religious works.
Because the use of Standard Yoruba did not result from some deliberate linguistic policy, much controversy exists as to what constitutes 'genuine Yoruba', with some writers holding the opinion that the Ọyọ dialect is the most "pure" form, and others stating that there is no such thing as genuine Yoruba at all. Standard Yoruba, the variety learned at school and used in the media, has nonetheless been a powerful consolidating factor in the emergence of a common Yoruba identity.
Writing systems
In the 17th century, Yoruba was written in the Ajami script, a form of Arabic script. It is still written in the Ajami writing script in some Islamic circles. Standard Yoruba orthography originated in the early work of Church Mission Society missionaries working among the Aku (Yoruba) of Freetown. One of their informants was Crowther, who later would proceed to work on his native language himself. In early grammar primers and translations of portions of the English Bible, Crowther used the Latin alphabet largely without tone markings. The only diacritic used was a dot below certain vowels to signify their open variants and , viz. and . Over the years the orthography was revised to represent tone among other things. In 1875, the Church Missionary Society (CMS) organized a conference on Yoruba Orthography; the standard devised there was the basis for the orthography of the steady flow of religious and educational literature over the next seventy years.
The current orthography of Yoruba derives from a 1966 report of the Yoruba Orthography Committee, along with Ayọ Bamgboṣe's 1965 Yoruba Orthography, a study of the earlier orthographies and an attempt to bring Yoruba orthography in line with actual speech as much as possible. Still largely similar to the older orthography, it employs the Latin alphabet modified by the use of the digraph and certain diacritics, including the underdots under the letters , , and . Previously, the vertical line had been used to avoid the mark being fully covered by an underline, as in ⟨e̩⟩, ⟨o̩⟩, ⟨s̩⟩; however, that usage is no longer part of the standard orthography.
The Latin letters , , , , are not used.
The pronunciation of the letters without diacritics corresponds more or less to their International Phonetic Alphabet equivalents, except for the labial–velar consonant (written ) and (written ), in which both consonants are pronounced simultaneously rather than sequentially. The diacritic underneath vowels indicates an open vowel, pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted (so is pronounced and is ). represents a postalveolar consonant like the English , represents a palatal approximant like English , and a voiced palatal stop , as is common in many African orthographies.
In addition to the underdots, three further diacritics are used on vowels and syllabic nasal consonants to indicate the language's tones: an acute accent for the high tone, a grave accent for the low tone, and an optional macron for the middle tone. These are used in addition to the underdots in and . When more than one tone is used in one syllable, the vowel can either be written once for each tone (for example, * for a vowel with tone rising from low to high) or, more rarely in current usage, combined into a single accent. In this case, a caron is used for the rising tone (so the previous example would be written ) and a circumflex for the falling tone.
In Benin, Yoruba uses a different orthography. The Yoruba alphabet was standardized along with other Benin languages in the National Languages Alphabet by the National Language Commission in 1975, and revised in 1990 and 2008 by the National Center for Applied Linguistics.
In 2011, a Beninese priest-chief by the name of Tolúlàṣẹ Ògúntósìn devised his own system based on a vision received in his sleep believed to have been granted from Oduduwa. This "Oduduwa alphabet" system has also received approval and support from other prominent chiefs in the Yorubaland region.
Phonology
The three possible syllable structures of Yoruba are consonant+vowel (CV), vowel alone (V), and syllabic nasal (N). Every syllable bears one of the three tones: high , mid (generally left unmarked), and low . The sentence n̄ ò lọ (I didn't go) provides examples of the three syllable types:
n̄ — — I
ò — — not (negation)
lọ — — to go
Vowels
Standard Yoruba has seven oral and five nasal vowels. There are no diphthongs in Yoruba; sequences of vowels are pronounced as separate syllables. Dialects differ in the number of vowels they have; see above.
In some cases, the phonetic realization of these vowels is noticeably different from what the symbol suggests:
The oral is close front , and the nasal varies between close front and near-close front .
The oral is close back , and the nasal varies between close near-back , close back , near-close near-back and near-close back .
The oral are close-mid , and do not have nasal counterparts.
The oral is open-mid , and the nasal varies between mid and open-mid .
The oral is near-open , and the nasal varies between open-mid and near-open .
The oral is central .
The status of a fifth nasal vowel, , is controversial. Although the sound occurs in speech, several authors have argued it to be not phonemically contrastive; often, it is in free variation with . Orthographically, nasal vowels are normally represented by an oral vowel symbol followed by (, , , ), except in case of the allophone of (see below) preceding a nasal vowel: inú 'inside, belly' is actually pronounced .
Consonants
The voiceless plosives and are slightly aspirated; in some Yoruba varieties, and are more dental. The rhotic consonant is realized as a flap or, in some varieties (notably Lagos Yoruba), as the alveolar approximant .
Like many other languages of the region, Yoruba has the voiceless and voiced labial–velar stops and : pápá 'field', 'all'. Notably, it lacks the common voiceless bilabial stop so is written as .
Yoruba also lacks a phoneme ; the letter is used for the sound in the orthography, but strictly speaking, it refers to an allophone of immediately preceding a nasal vowel.
There is also a syllabic nasal, which forms a syllable nucleus by itself. When it precedes a vowel, it is a velar nasal : n ò lọ 'I didn't go'. In other cases, its place of articulation is homorganic with the following consonant: ó ń lọ 'he is going', ó ń fò 'he is jumping'.
Tone
Yoruba is a tonal language with three-level tones and two or three contour tones. Every syllable must have at least one tone; a syllable containing a long vowel can have two tones. Tones are marked by use of the acute accent for high tone (, ) and the grave accent for low tone (, ); mid is unmarked, except on syllabic nasals where it is indicated using a macron (, ). Examples:
H: ó bẹ́ [ó bɛ́] 'he jumped'; síbí [síbí] 'spoon'
M: ó bẹ [ó bɛ̄] 'he is forward'; ara [āɾā] 'body'
L: ó bẹ̀ [ó bɛ̀] 'he asks for pardon'; ọ̀kọ̀ [ɔ̀kɔ̀] 'spear'.
When teaching Yoruba literacy, solfège names of musical notes are used to name the tones: low is do, mid is re, and high is mi.
Tonality effects and computer-coded documents
Written Yoruba includes diacritical marks not available on conventional computer keyboards, requiring some adaptations. In particular, the use of the sub dots and tone marks are not represented, so many Yoruba documents simply omit them. Asubiaro Toluwase, in his 2014 paper, points out that the use of these diacritics can affect the retrieval of Yoruba documents by popular search engines. Therefore, their omission can have a significant impact on online research.
Assimilation and elision
When a word precedes another word beginning with a vowel, assimilation, or deletion ('elision') of one of the vowels often takes place. In fact, since syllables in Yoruba normally end in a vowel, and most nouns start with one, it is a very common phenomenon, and it is absent only in very slow, unnatural speech. The orthography here follows speech in that word divisions are normally not indicated in words that are contracted as a result of assimilation or elision: ra ẹja → rẹja 'buy fish'. Sometimes, however, authors may choose to use an inverted comma to indicate an elided vowel as in ní ilé → n'ílé 'in the house'.
Long vowels within words usually signal that a consonant has been elided word-internally. In such cases, the tone of the elided vowel is retained: àdìrò → ààrò 'hearth'; koríko → koóko 'grass'; òtító → òótó 'truth'.
Grammar
Yoruba is a highly isolating language. Its basic constituent order is subject–verb–object, as in ó nà Adé 'he beat Adé'. The bare verb stem denotes a completed action, often called perfect; tense and aspect are marked by preverbal particles such as ń 'imperfect/present continuous', ti 'past'. Negation is expressed by a preverbal particle kò. Serial verb constructions are common, as in many other languages of West Africa.
Although Yoruba has no grammatical gender, it has a distinction between human and non-human nouns. Probably a remainder of the noun class system of Proto-Niger–Congo, the distinction is only apparent in the fact that the two groups require different interrogative particles: ta ni for human nouns ('who?') and kí ni for non-human nouns ('what?'). The associative construction (covering possessive/genitive and related notions) consists of juxtaposing nouns in the order modified-modifier as in inú àpótí {inside box} 'the inside of the box', fìlà Àkàndé 'Akande's cap' or àpótí aṣọ 'box for clothes'. More than two nouns can be juxtaposed: rélùweè abẹ́ ilẹ̀ (railway underground) 'underground railway', inú àpótí aṣọ 'the inside of the clothes box'. In the rare case that it results in two possible readings, disambiguation is left to the context. Plural nouns are indicated by a plural word.
There are two 'prepositions': ní 'on, at, in' and sí 'onto, towards'. The former indicates location and absence of movement, and the latter encodes location/direction with movement. Position and direction are expressed by the prepositions in combination with spatial relational nouns like orí 'top', apá 'side', inú 'inside', etí 'edge', abẹ́ 'under', ilẹ̀ 'down', etc. Many of the spatial relational terms are historically related to body-part terms.
Numerals
Yoruba uses a vigesimal (base-20) numbering system.
Ogún, 20, is a basic numeric block.
Ogójì, 40, (Ogún-méjì) = 20 multiplied by 2 (èjì).
Ọgọ́ta, 60, (Ogún-mẹ́ta) = 20 multiplied by 3 (ẹ̀ta).
Ọgọ́rin, 80, (Ogún-mẹ́rin) = 20 multiplied by 4 (ẹ̀rin).
Ọgọ́rùn-ún, 100, (Ogún-márùn-ún) = 20 multiplied by 5 (àrún).
- 16 (Ẹẹ́rìndínlógún) = 4 less than 20.
- 17 (Ẹẹ́tàdínlógún) = 3 less than 20.
- 18 (Eéjìdínlógún) = 2 less than 20.
- 19 (Oókàndínlógún) = 1 less than 20.
- 21 (Oókànlélógún) = 1 increment on 20.
- 22 (Eéjìlélógún) = 2 increment on 20.
- 23 (Ẹẹ́tàlélógún) = 3 increment on 20.
- 24 (Ẹẹ́rìnlélógún) = 4 increment on 20.
- 25 (Aárùnlélógún) = 5 increment on 20.
Arabic influence
The wide adoption of imported religions and civilizations such as Islam and Christianity has had an impact both on written and spoken Yoruba. In his Arabic-English Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Quran and Sunnah, Yoruba Muslim scholar Abu-Abdullah Adelabu argued Islam has enriched African languages by providing them with technical and cultural augmentations with Swahili and Somali in East Africa and Turanci Hausa and Wolof in West Africa being the primary beneficiaries. Adelabu, a Ph D graduate from Damascus cited—among many other common usages—the following words to be Yoruba's derivatives of Arabic vocabularies:
Some loanwords
Sanma: Heaven or sky, from
Alubarika: blessing, from
Alumaani: wealth, money, resources, from
[[Amen#Islam|Amin]]: Arabic form of the Hebrew religious term, Amen, from
Among commonly Arabic words used in Yoruba are names of the days such as Atalata () for Tuesday, Alaruba () for Wednesday, Alamisi () for Thursday, and Jimoh (, Jumu'ah) for Friday. By far Ọjọ́ Jimoh is the most favorably used. It is usually referred to as the unpleasant word for Friday, Ẹtì, which means failure, laziness, or abandonment. Ultimately, the standard words for the days of the week are Àìkú, Ajé, Ìṣẹ́gun, Ọjọ́rú, Ọjọ́bọ, Ẹtì, Àbámẹ́ta, for Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday respectively. Friday remains Eti in the Yoruba language.
Literature
Yoruba has an extensive body of literature.
Spoken literature
•Odu Ifa, •Oriki, •Ewi, •Esa, •Àlọ́, •Rara, •Iremoje, •Bolojo, •Ijala, •Ajangbode, •Ijeke
Written literature
Samuel Ajayi Crowther
Wande Abimbola
Reverend Samuel Johnson
Yemi Elebuibon
Daniel Olorunfemi Fagunwa
Adebayo Faleti
Akinwunmi Isola
Obo Aba Hisanjani
Duro Ladipo
J.F. Odunjo
Afolabi Olabimtan
Wole Soyinka
Amos Tutuola
Lawuyi Ogunniran
Kola Tubosun
Music
Ibeyi, Cuban francophone sister duo, native Yoruba speakers.
Sakara, a Yoruba song originating from Abeokuta, Ogun Nigeria. One of the first performers of this type of music was in Lagos in the 1930s.
Apala, Apala (or Akpala) is a music genre originally developed by the Yoruba people of Nigeria, during the country's history as a colony of the British Empire. It is a percussion-based style that originated in the late 1970s.
Fuji, a popular, contemporary Yoruba musical genre.
Jùjú, a style of Nigerian popular music, derived from traditional Yoruba percussion.
See also
Yoruba numerals
The Yoruba newspaper Alaroye Notes and references
Notes
References
Oyètádé, B. Akíntúndé & Buba, Malami (2000) 'Hausa Loan Words in Yorùbá', in Wolff & Gensler (eds.) Proceedings of the 2nd WoCAL, Leipzig 1997'', Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 241–260.
History
Dictionaries
Grammars and sketches
The first grammar of Yoruba.
External links
Yoruba Wikipedia
Omniglot: Yoruba orthography
Yoruba dictionary
Yoruba Translation - Free online translation service instantly Yorùbá.
kasahorow Yoruba Dictionary
Ọrọ èdè Yorùbá
lingua: Yoruba-Online-Dictionary English-Yoruba / Yoruba-English
Sabere d'owo Yoruba video drama series. Radio Abeokuta (2006).
Yoruba Grammar
Pan-African Localization page for Yoruba
Yoruba in North America
Journal of West African Languages: Yoruba
yorubaweb.com
Yoruba blog (features bilingual texts in Yoruba and English, including folklore)
Abibitumi Kasa Yorùbá Language Resources
Yorùbá Yé Mi - A Beginning Yorùbá Textbook
A Vocabulary of the Yoruba Language
Learn Yoruba App
Analytic languages
Isolating languages
Languages of Benin
Languages of Nigeria
Subject–verb–object languages
Language
Language
Yoruboid languages
Languages of the Caribbean
Languages of Trinidad and Tobago
Languages of Jamaica
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20spotted%20cuckoo
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Great spotted cuckoo
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The great spotted cuckoo (Clamator glandarius) is a member of the cuckoo order of birds, the Cuculiformes, which also includes the roadrunners, the anis and the coucals.
It is widely spread throughout Africa and the Mediterranean Basin. It is a brood parasite that lays its eggs in the nests of corvids, in particular the Eurasian magpie.
Taxonomy
In 1747 the English naturalist George Edwards included an illustration and a description of the great spotted cuckoo in the second volume of his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. He used the English name "The Great Spotted Cuckow". Edwards based his hand-coloured etching on a specimen that had been shot in Gibraltar and sent to the English naturalist Mark Catesby in London. When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition, he placed the great spotted cuckoo with the other cuckoos in the genus Cuculus. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Cuculus glandarius and cited Edwards' work. The great spotted cuckoo is now placed in the genus Clamator that was introduced by German naturalist Johann Jakob Kaup in 1829. The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised. The genus name Clamator is Latin for "shouter" from clamare, "to shout". The specific epithet glandarius is Latin meaning "of acorns".
Description
This species is slightly larger than the common cuckoo at in length, but looks much larger with its broad wings and long narrow tail. The adult is grey above with a slender body, long tail and strong legs. It has a grey cap, grey wings, a yellowish face and upper breast, and white underparts. Sexes are similar. The juveniles have blackish upperparts and cap, and chestnut primary wing feathers. This species has a magpie-like flight.
It is a bird of warm open country with trees. It feeds on insects, spiders, small reptiles and hairy caterpillars, which are distasteful to many birds.
The great spotted cuckoo's call is a loud cher-cher-kri-kri and variations.
Behaviour
Breeding
Unlike the common cuckoo, neither the hen nor the hatched chick of this species evict the host's eggs, but the young magpies often die because they cannot compete successfully with the cuckoo for food. However it has been shown that this species' chicks secrete a repellent scent when predators threaten. The repellent protects great spotted cuckoo chicks themselves as well as the host's chicks from predators. Carrion crow (Corvus corone corone) chicks survive better if a great spotted cuckoo chick shares their nest. Birds of prey and feral cats less frequently prey on crow's nests that include a great spotted cuckoo chick. Crow chicks benefit only when predators are very active; when there is less predation, losing food to great spotted cuckoo chicks harms the crow chicks without compensation.
References
Further reading
External links
Great spotted cuckoo - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
Oiseaux Photographs, text, map
ADW: Clamator glandarius: Information
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 1.7 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
IBC Nine videos.
great spotted cuckoo
Birds of Africa
Birds of Southern Europe
Birds of Western Asia
Brood parasites
great spotted cuckoo
great spotted cuckoo
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356381
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Put%20%28biblical%20figure%29
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Put (biblical figure)
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Phut or Put ( Pūṭ; Septuagint Greek Phoud) is the third son of Ham (one of the sons of Noah), in the biblical Table of Nations (Genesis ; cf. 1 Chronicles ). The name Put (or Phut) is used in the Bible for Ancient Libya, but a few scholars proposed the Land of Punt known from Ancient Egyptian annals.
Historical records
Epiphanius writes: "Thus Mistrem was allotted Egypt, Cush Ethiopia, Put Axum, Ragman and Sabteka and [Dedan, also called Judad], the region bordering on Garama."
Josephus writes: "Phut also was the founder of Libya, and called the inhabitants Phutites (Phoutes), from himself: there is also a river in the country of Moors which bears that name; whence it is that we may see the greatest part of the Grecian historiographers mention that river and the adjoining country by the appellation of Phut (Phoute): but the name it has now has been by change given it from one of the sons of Mezraim, who was called Lybyos." Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy both place the river Phuth on the west side of Mauretania (modern Morocco). Ptolemy also mentions a city Putea in Libya (iv.3.39).
A Libyan connection has likewise been inferred from Nahum , where it is said that "Put and Lubim" were the helpers of Egypt. Other biblical verses consistently refer to the descendants of Put as warriors. In , they are again described as being supporters of Egypt. Ezekiel mentions them three times: in , as supporters of Tyre (Phoenicia), in again as supporting Egypt, and in , as supporters of Gog. The Septuagint Greek (LXX) substitutes Libues in Ezekiel where the Hebrew Bible refers to Put. However, the LXX reads Put in , in place of Pul in the Hebrew.
The Libyan tribe of pỉdw shows up in Egyptian records by the 22nd dynasty, while a Ptolemaic text from Edfu refers to the t3 n nꜣ pỉt.w "the land of the Pitu". The word was later written in Demotic as Pỉt, and as Phaiat in Coptic, a name for Libya Aegypti, northwestern Egypt.
A fragment of Nebuchadnezzar II's annals mentions his campaign in 567 in Egypt, and defeating the soldiers of Pu-ṭu-ia-a-man, i.e. Greek Libya (Cyrene). A multilingual stele from al-Kabrīt, dating to the reign of Darius I refers to the Put as the province of Putāya (Old Persian) and Puṭa (Neo-Babylonian), where the equivalent text written in Egyptian has tꜣ ṯmḥw "Libya".
See also
Hamitic
Putāya (satrapy)
References
Bibliography
Baker, David W. 1992. "Put". In The Anchor Bible Dictionary, edited by David Noel Freedman. Vol. 5 of 6 vols. New York: Doubleday. 560
Graefe, Erhart. 1975. "Der libysche Stammesname p(j)d(j)/pjt im spätzeitlichen Onomastikon." Enchoria: Zeitschrift für Demotistik und Koptologie 5:13–17.
Children of Ham (son of Noah)
Hebrew Bible nations
Book of Genesis people
Noach (parashah)
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356382
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene%20regulatory%20network
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Gene regulatory network
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A gene (or genetic) regulatory network (GRN) is a collection of molecular regulators that interact with each other and with other substances in the cell to govern the gene expression levels of mRNA and proteins which, in turn, determine the function of the cell. GRN also play a central role in morphogenesis, the creation of body structures, which in turn is central to evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo).
The regulator can be DNA, RNA, protein and complexes of these. The interaction can be direct or indirect (through transcribed RNA or translated protein). In general, each mRNA molecule goes on to make a specific protein (or set of proteins). In some cases this protein will be structural, and will accumulate at the cell membrane or within the cell to give it particular structural properties. In other cases the protein will be an enzyme, i.e., a micro-machine that catalyses a certain reaction, such as the breakdown of a food source or toxin. Some proteins though serve only to activate other genes, and these are the transcription factors that are the main players in regulatory networks or cascades. By binding to the promoter region at the start of other genes they turn them on, initiating the production of another protein, and so on. Some transcription factors are inhibitory.
In single-celled organisms, regulatory networks respond to the external environment, optimising the cell at a given time for survival in this environment. Thus a yeast cell, finding itself in a sugar solution, will turn on genes to make enzymes that process the sugar to alcohol. This process, which we associate with wine-making, is how the yeast cell makes its living, gaining energy to multiply, which under normal circumstances would enhance its survival prospects.
In multicellular animals the same principle has been put in the service of gene cascades that control body-shape. Each time a cell divides, two cells result which, although they contain the same genome in full, can differ in which genes are turned on and making proteins. Sometimes a 'self-sustaining feedback loop' ensures that a cell maintains its identity and passes it on. Less understood is the mechanism of epigenetics by which chromatin modification may provide cellular memory by blocking or allowing transcription. A major feature of multicellular animals is the use of morphogen gradients, which in effect provide a positioning system that tells a cell where in the body it is, and hence what sort of cell to become. A gene that is turned on in one cell may make a product that leaves the cell and diffuses through adjacent cells, entering them and turning on genes only when it is present above a certain threshold level. These cells are thus induced into a new fate, and may even generate other morphogens that signal back to the original cell. Over longer distances morphogens may use the active process of signal transduction. Such signalling controls embryogenesis, the building of a body plan from scratch through a series of sequential steps. They also control and maintain adult bodies through feedback processes, and the loss of such feedback because of a mutation can be responsible for the cell proliferation that is seen in cancer. In parallel with this process of building structure, the gene cascade turns on genes that make structural proteins that give each cell the physical properties it needs.
Overview
At one level, biological cells can be thought of as "partially mixed bags" of biological chemicals – in the discussion of gene regulatory networks, these chemicals are mostly the messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and proteins that arise from gene expression. These mRNA and proteins interact with each other with various degrees of specificity. Some diffuse around the cell. Others are bound to cell membranes, interacting with molecules in the environment. Still others pass through cell membranes and mediate long range signals to other cells in a multi-cellular organism. These molecules and their interactions comprise a gene regulatory network. A typical gene regulatory network looks something like this:
The nodes of this network can represent genes, proteins, mRNAs, protein/protein complexes or cellular processes. Nodes that are depicted as lying along vertical lines are associated with the cell/environment interfaces, while the others are free-floating and can diffuse. Edges between nodes represent interactions between the nodes, that can correspond to individual molecular reactions between DNA, mRNA, miRNA, proteins or molecular processes through which the products of one gene affect those of another, though the lack of experimentally obtained information often implies that some reactions are not modeled at such a fine level of detail. These interactions can be inductive (usually represented by arrowheads or the + sign), with an increase in the concentration of one leading to an increase in the other, inhibitory (represented with filled circles, blunt arrows or the minus sign), with an increase in one leading to a decrease in the other, or dual, when depending on the circumstances the regulator can activate or inhibit the target node. The nodes can regulate themselves directly or indirectly, creating feedback loops, which form cyclic chains of dependencies in the topological network. The network structure is an abstraction of the system's molecular or chemical dynamics, describing the manifold ways in which one substance affects all the others to which it is connected. In practice, such GRNs are inferred from the biological literature on a given system and represent a distillation of the collective knowledge about a set of related biochemical reactions. To speed up the manual curation of GRNs, some recent efforts try to use text mining, curated databases, network inference from massive data, model checking and other information extraction technologies for this purpose.
Genes can be viewed as nodes in the network, with input being proteins such as transcription factors, and outputs being the level of gene expression. The value of the node depends on a function which depends on the value of its regulators in previous time steps (in the Boolean network described below these are Boolean functions, typically AND, OR, and NOT). These functions have been interpreted as performing a kind of information processing within the cell, which determines cellular behavior. The basic drivers within cells are concentrations of some proteins, which determine both spatial (location within the cell or tissue) and temporal (cell cycle or developmental stage) coordinates of the cell, as a kind of "cellular memory". The gene networks are only beginning to be understood, and it is a next step for biology to attempt to deduce the functions for each gene "node", to help understand the behavior of the system in increasing levels of complexity, from gene to signaling pathway, cell or tissue level.
Mathematical models of GRNs have been developed to capture the behavior of the system being modeled, and in some cases generate predictions corresponding with experimental observations. In some other cases, models have proven to make accurate novel predictions, which can be tested experimentally, thus suggesting new approaches to explore in an experiment that sometimes wouldn't be considered in the design of the protocol of an experimental laboratory. Modeling techniques include differential equations (ODEs), Boolean networks, Petri nets, Bayesian networks, graphical Gaussian network models, Stochastic, and Process Calculi. Conversely, techniques have been proposed for generating models of GRNs that best explain a set of time series observations. Recently it has been shown that ChIP-seq signal of histone modification are more correlated with transcription factor motifs at promoters in comparison to RNA level. Hence it is proposed that time-series histone modification ChIP-seq could provide more reliable inference of gene-regulatory networks in comparison to methods based on expression levels.
Structure and evolution
Global feature
Gene regulatory networks are generally thought to be made up of a few highly connected nodes (hubs) and many poorly connected nodes nested within a hierarchical regulatory regime. Thus gene regulatory networks approximate a hierarchical scale free network topology. This is consistent with the view that most genes have limited pleiotropy and operate within regulatory modules. This structure is thought to evolve due to the preferential attachment of duplicated genes to more highly connected genes. Recent work has also shown that natural selection tends to favor networks with sparse connectivity.
There are primarily two ways that networks can evolve, both of which can occur simultaneously. The first is that network topology can be changed by the addition or subtraction of nodes (genes) or parts of the network (modules) may be expressed in different contexts. The Drosophila Hippo signaling pathway provides a good example. The Hippo signaling pathway controls both mitotic growth and post-mitotic cellular differentiation. Recently it was found that the network the Hippo signaling pathway operates in differs between these two functions which in turn changes the behavior of the Hippo signaling pathway. This suggests that the Hippo signaling pathway operates as a conserved regulatory module that can be used for multiple functions depending on context. Thus, changing network topology can allow a conserved module to serve multiple functions and alter the final output of the network. The second way networks can evolve is by changing the strength of interactions between nodes, such as how strongly a transcription factor may bind to a cis-regulatory element. Such variation in strength of network edges has been shown to underlie between species variation in vulva cell fate patterning of Caenorhabditis worms.
Local feature
Another widely cited characteristic of gene regulatory network is their abundance of certain repetitive sub-networks known as network motifs. Network motifs can be regarded as repetitive topological patterns when dividing a big network into small blocks. Previous analysis found several types of motifs that appeared more often in gene regulatory networks than in randomly generated networks. As an example, one such motif is called feed-forward loops, which consist three nodes. This motif is the most abundant among all possible motifs made up of three nodes, as is shown in the gene regulatory networks of fly, nematode, and human.
The enriched motifs have been proposed to follow convergent evolution, suggesting they are "optimal designs" for certain regulatory purposes. For example, modeling shows that feed-forward loops are able to coordinate the change in node A (in terms of concentration and activity) and the expression dynamics of node C, creating different input-output behaviors. The galactose utilization system of E. coli contains a feed-forward loop which accelerates the activation of galactose utilization operon galETK, potentially facilitating the metabolic transition to galactose when glucose is depleted. The feed-forward loop in the arabinose utilization systems of E.coli delays the activation of arabinose catabolism operon and transporters, potentially avoiding unnecessary metabolic transition due to temporary fluctuations in upstream signaling pathways. Similarly in the Wnt signaling pathway of Xenopus, the feed-forward loop acts as a fold-change detector that responses to the fold change, rather than the absolute change, in the level of β-catenin, potentially increasing the resistance to fluctuations in β-catenin levels. Following the convergent evolution hypothesis, the enrichment of feed-forward loops would be an adaptation for fast response and noise resistance. A recent research found that yeast grown in an environment of constant glucose developed mutations in glucose signaling pathways and growth regulation pathway, suggesting regulatory components responding to environmental changes are dispensable under constant environment.
On the other hand, some researchers hypothesize that the enrichment of network motifs is non-adaptive. In other words, gene regulatory networks can evolve to a similar structure without the specific selection on the proposed input-output behavior. Support for this hypothesis often comes from computational simulations. For example, fluctuations in the abundance of feed-forward loops in a model that simulates the evolution of gene regulatory networks by randomly rewiring nodes may suggest that the enrichment of feed-forward loops is a side-effect of evolution. In another model of gene regulator networks evolution, the ratio of the frequencies of gene duplication and gene deletion show great influence on network topology: certain ratios lead to the enrichment of feed-forward loops and create networks that show features of hierarchical scale free networks. De novo evolution of coherent type 1 feed-forward loops has been demonstrated computationally in response to selection for their hypothesized function of filtering out a short spurious signal, supporting adaptive evolution, but for non-idealized noise, a dynamics-based system of feed-forward regulation with different topology was instead favored.
Bacterial regulatory networks
Regulatory networks allow bacteria to adapt to almost every environmental niche on earth. A network of interactions among diverse types of molecules including DNA, RNA, proteins and metabolites, is utilised by the bacteria to achieve regulation of gene expression. In bacteria, the principal function of regulatory networks is to control the response to environmental changes, for example nutritional status and environmental stress. A complex organization of networks permits the microorganism to coordinate and integrate multiple environmental signals.
Modelling
Coupled ordinary differential equations
It is common to model such a network with a set of coupled ordinary differential equations (ODEs) or SDEs, describing the reaction kinetics of the constituent parts. Suppose that our regulatory network has nodes, and let represent the concentrations of the corresponding substances at time . Then the temporal evolution of the system can be described approximately by
where the functions express the dependence of on the concentrations of other substances present in the cell. The functions are ultimately derived from basic principles of chemical kinetics or simple expressions derived from these e.g. Michaelis–Menten enzymatic kinetics. Hence, the functional forms of the are usually chosen as low-order polynomials or Hill functions that serve as an ansatz for the real molecular dynamics. Such models are then studied using the mathematics of nonlinear dynamics. System-specific information, like reaction rate constants and sensitivities, are encoded as constant parameters.
By solving for the fixed point of the system:
for all , one obtains (possibly several) concentration profiles of proteins and mRNAs that are theoretically sustainable (though not necessarily stable). Steady states of kinetic equations thus correspond to potential cell types, and oscillatory solutions to the above equation to naturally cyclic cell types. Mathematical stability of these attractors can usually be characterized by the sign of higher derivatives at critical points, and then correspond to biochemical stability of the concentration profile. Critical points and bifurcations in the equations correspond to critical cell states in which small state or parameter perturbations could switch the system between one of several stable differentiation fates. Trajectories correspond to the unfolding of biological pathways and transients of the equations to short-term biological events. For a more mathematical discussion, see the articles on nonlinearity, dynamical systems, bifurcation theory, and chaos theory.
Boolean network
The following example illustrates how a Boolean network can model a GRN together with its gene products (the outputs) and the substances from the environment that affect it (the inputs). Stuart Kauffman was amongst the first biologists to use the metaphor of Boolean networks to model genetic regulatory networks.
Each gene, each input, and each output is represented by a node in a directed graph in which there is an arrow from one node to another if and only if there is a causal link between the two nodes.
Each node in the graph can be in one of two states: on or off.
For a gene, "on" corresponds to the gene being expressed; for inputs and outputs, "off" corresponds to the substance being present.
Time is viewed as proceeding in discrete steps. At each step, the new state of a node is a Boolean function of the prior states of the nodes with arrows pointing towards it.
The validity of the model can be tested by comparing simulation results with time series observations. A partial validation of a Boolean network model can also come from testing the predicted existence of a yet unknown regulatory connection between two particular transcription factors that each are nodes of the model.
Continuous networks
Continuous network models of GRNs are an extension of the boolean networks described above. Nodes still represent genes and connections between them regulatory influences on gene expression. Genes in biological systems display a continuous range of activity levels and it has been argued that using a continuous representation captures several properties of gene regulatory networks not present in the Boolean model. Formally most of these approaches are similar to an artificial neural network, as inputs to a node are summed up and the result serves as input to a sigmoid function, e.g., but proteins do often control gene expression in a synergistic, i.e. non-linear, way. However, there is now a continuous network model that allows grouping of inputs to a node thus realizing another level of regulation. This model is formally closer to a higher order recurrent neural network. The same model has also been used to mimic the evolution of cellular differentiation and even multicellular morphogenesis.
Stochastic gene networks
Recent experimental results
have demonstrated that gene expression is a stochastic process. Thus, many authors are now using the stochastic formalism, after the work by Arkin et al. Works on single gene expression and small synthetic genetic networks, such as the genetic toggle switch of Tim Gardner and Jim Collins, provided additional experimental data on the phenotypic variability and the stochastic nature of gene expression. The first versions of stochastic models of gene expression involved only instantaneous reactions and were driven by the Gillespie algorithm.
Since some processes, such as gene transcription, involve many reactions and could not be correctly modeled as an instantaneous reaction in a single step, it was proposed to model these reactions as single step multiple delayed reactions in order to account for the time it takes for the entire process to be complete.
From here, a set of reactions were proposed that allow generating GRNs. These are then simulated using a modified version of the Gillespie algorithm, that can simulate multiple time delayed reactions (chemical reactions where each of the products is provided a time delay that determines when will it be released in the system as a "finished product").
For example, basic transcription of a gene can be represented by the following single-step reaction (RNAP is the RNA polymerase, RBS is the RNA ribosome binding site, and Pro i is the promoter region of gene i):
Furthermore, there seems to be a trade-off between the noise in gene expression, the speed with which genes can switch, and the metabolic cost associated their functioning. More specifically, for any given level of metabolic cost, there is an optimal trade-off between noise and processing speed and increasing the metabolic cost leads to better speed-noise trade-offs.
A recent work proposed a simulator (SGNSim, Stochastic Gene Networks Simulator), that can model GRNs where transcription and translation are modeled as multiple time delayed events and its dynamics is driven by a stochastic simulation algorithm (SSA) able to deal with multiple time delayed events.
The time delays can be drawn from several distributions and the reaction rates from complex
functions or from physical parameters. SGNSim can generate ensembles of GRNs within a set of user-defined parameters, such as topology. It can also be used to model specific GRNs and systems of chemical reactions. Genetic perturbations such as gene deletions, gene over-expression, insertions, frame shift mutations can also be modeled as well.
The GRN is created from a graph with the desired topology, imposing in-degree and out-degree distributions. Gene promoter activities are affected by other genes expression products that act as inputs, in the form of monomers or combined into multimers and set as direct or indirect. Next, each direct input is assigned to an operator site and different transcription factors can be allowed, or not, to compete for the same operator site, while indirect inputs are given a target. Finally, a function is assigned to each gene, defining the gene's response to a combination of transcription factors (promoter state). The transfer functions (that is, how genes respond to a combination of inputs) can be assigned to each combination of promoter states as desired.
In other recent work, multiscale models of gene regulatory networks have been developed that focus on synthetic biology applications. Simulations have been used that model all biomolecular interactions in transcription, translation, regulation, and induction of gene regulatory networks, guiding the design of synthetic systems.
Prediction
Other work has focused on predicting the gene expression levels in a gene regulatory network. The approaches used to model gene regulatory networks have been constrained to be interpretable and, as a result, are generally simplified versions of the network. For example, Boolean networks have been used due to their simplicity and ability to handle noisy data but lose data information by having a binary representation of the genes. Also, artificial neural networks omit using a hidden layer so that they can be interpreted, losing the ability to model higher order correlations in the data. Using a model that is not constrained to be interpretable, a more accurate model can be produced. Being able to predict gene expressions more accurately provides a way to explore how drugs affect a system of genes as well as for finding which genes are interrelated in a process. This has been encouraged by the DREAM competition which promotes a competition for the best prediction algorithms. Some other recent work has used artificial neural networks with a hidden layer.
Applications
Multiple sclerosis
There are three classes of multiple sclerosis: relapsing-remitting (RRMS), primary progressive (PPMS) and secondary progressive (SPMS). Gene regulatory network (GRN) plays a vital role to understand the disease mechanism across these three different multiple sclerosis classes.
See also
Body plan
Cis-regulatory module
Genenetwork (database)
Morphogen
Operon
Synexpression
Systems biology
Weighted gene co-expression network analysis
References
Further reading
External links
Plant Transcription Factor Database and Plant Transcriptional Regulation Data and Analysis Platform
Open source web service for GRN analysis
BIB: Yeast Biological Interaction Browser
Graphical Gaussian models for genome data – Inference of gene association networks with GGMs
A bibliography on learning causal networks of gene interactions – regularly updated, contains hundreds of links to papers from bioinformatics, statistics, machine learning.
https://web.archive.org/web/20060907074456/http://mips.gsf.de/proj/biorel/ BIOREL is a web-based resource for quantitative estimation of the gene network bias in relation to available database information about gene activity/function/properties/associations/interactio.
Evolving Biological Clocks using Genetic Regulatory Networks – Information page with model source code and Java applet.
Engineered Gene Networks
Tutorial: Genetic Algorithms and their Application to the Artificial Evolution of Genetic Regulatory Networks
BEN: a web-based resource for exploring the connections between genes, diseases, and other biomedical entities
Global protein-protein interaction and gene regulation network of Arabidopsis thaliana
Gene expression
Networks
Systems biology
Evolutionary developmental biology
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356387
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourguignon
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Bourguignon
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Bourguignon can refer to:
Bourguignon (surname)
Burgundian language (Oïl), an Oïl language spoken in the region of Burgundy
Bourguignon, Doubs, a commune of the Doubs département of France
a style of cooking with alcohol, especially Beef bourguignon
Bourguignon (grape), another name for the French wine grape Gouais blanc
Bourguignon horse, an extinct horse breed
Jacques Courtois, a painter who was popularly known as "le Bourguignon"
Fort Bourguignon, a fortress in Pula, Croatia
Bourguignons, Aube, a commune in France
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356390
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius%20Servilius%20Ahala
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Gaius Servilius Ahala
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Gaius Servilius Ahala ( 439 BC) was a 5th-century BC politician of ancient Rome, considered by many later writers to have been a hero. His fame rested on the contention that he saved Rome from Spurius Maelius in 439 BC by killing him with a dagger concealed under an armpit. This may be less historical fact and more etiological myth, invented to explain the Servilian cognomen "Ahala"/"Axilla", which means "armpit" and is probably of Etruscan origin.
As related by Livy and others, Ahala served as magister equitum in 439 BC, when Cincinnatus was appointed dictator on the supposition that Spurius Maelius was styling himself a king and plotting against the state. During the night on which the dictator was appointed, the capitol and all the strong posts were garrisoned by the partisans of the patricians. In the morning, when the people assembled in the forum, with Spurius Maelius among them, Ahala summoned the latter to appear before the dictator. When Maelius disobeyed and took refuge in the crowd, Ahala rushed into the throng and killed him.
This is mentioned by several later writers as an example of ancient Roman heroism, and is frequently referred to by Cicero in terms of the highest admiration; but was regarded as a case of murder at the time. Ahala was brought to trial, and only escaped condemnation by going into voluntary exile. Livy passes over this, and only mentions that a bill was brought in three years afterwards, in 436 BC, by another Spurius Maelius, a tribune, for confiscating the property of Ahala, but that it failed.
In 54 BC, a representation of Ahala was given on a coin of Marcus Junius Brutus, who participated in the murder of Julius Caesar, but we cannot suppose it to be anything more than an imaginary likeness. Brutus claimed (perhaps baselessly) that he was descended from Lucius Junius Brutus, the first consul, on his father's side, and from Ahala on his mother's, and thus was sprung from two tyrannicides. The head of Brutus on the annexed coin is therefore intended to represent the first consul.
Plutarch says, in his life of Brutus, that Brutus' mother Servilia was a descendant of Servilius Ahala, and the ancestral example was an inspiration for his assassination of Julius Caesar.
See also
Servilia gens
References
Bibliography
Michael Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge University Press, 1974.
5th-century BC Romans
Ancient Roman assassins
Ancient Roman exiles
Magistri equitum (Roman Republic)
Ahala, Gaius
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356391
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter%20from%20Birmingham%20Jail
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Letter from Birmingham Jail
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The "Letter from Birmingham Jail", also known as the "Letter from Birmingham City Jail" and "The Negro Is Your Brother", is an open letter written on April 16, 1963, by Martin Luther King Jr. It says that people have a moral responsibility to break unjust laws and to take direct action rather than waiting potentially forever for justice to come through the courts. Responding to being referred to as an "outsider", King writes: "Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere."
The letter, written in response to "A Call for Unity" during the 1963 Birmingham campaign, was widely published, and became an important text for the American Civil Rights Movement. The letter has been described as "one of the most important historical documents penned by a modern political prisoner" and is considered a classic document of civil disobedience.
Background
The Birmingham campaign began on April 3, 1963, with coordinated marches and sit-ins against racism and racial segregation in Birmingham, Alabama. The nonviolent campaign was coordinated by the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights (ACMHR) and King's Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). On April 10, Circuit Judge W. A. Jenkins Jr. issued a blanket injunction against "parading, demonstrating, boycotting, trespassing and picketing." Leaders of the campaign announced they would disobey the ruling. On April 12, King was arrested with SCLC activist Ralph Abernathy, ACMHR and SCLC official Fred Shuttlesworth, and other marchers, while thousands of African Americans dressed for Good Friday looked on.
King was met with unusually harsh conditions in the Birmingham jail. An ally smuggled in a newspaper from April 12, which contained "A Call for Unity", a statement by eight white Alabama clergymen against King and his methods. The letter provoked King, and he began to write a response to the newspaper itself. King writes in Why We Can't Wait: "Begun on the margins of the newspaper in which the statement appeared while I was in jail, the letter was continued on scraps of writing paper supplied by a friendly black trusty, and concluded on a pad my attorneys were eventually permitted to leave me." Walter Reuther, president of the United Auto Workers, arranged $160,000 to bail out King and the other jailed protestors.
Summary and themes
King's letter, dated April 16, 1963, responded to several criticisms made by the "A Call for Unity" clergymen, who agreed that social injustices existed but argued that the battle against racial segregation should be fought solely in the courts, not the streets. As a minister, King responded to the criticisms on religious grounds. As an activist challenging an entrenched social system, he argued on legal, political, and historical grounds. As an African American, he spoke of the country's oppression of black people, including himself. As an orator, he used many persuasive techniques to reach the hearts and minds of his audience. Altogether, King's letter was a powerful defense of the motivations, tactics, and goals of the Birmingham campaign and the Civil Rights Movement more generally.
King began the letter by responding to the criticism that he and his fellow activists were "outsiders" causing trouble in the streets of Birmingham. King referred to his responsibility as the leader of the SCLC, which had numerous affiliated organizations throughout the South. "I was invited" by our Birmingham affiliate "because injustice is here" in what is probably the most racially-divided city in the country, with its brutal police, unjust courts, and many "unsolved bombings of Negro homes and churches." Referring to his belief that all communities and states were interrelated, King wrote, "Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. We are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly, affects all indirectly ... Anyone who lives inside the United States can never be considered an outsider anywhere within its bounds." King also warned that if white people successfully rejected his nonviolent activists as rabble-rousing outside agitators, that could encourage millions of African Americans to "seek solace and security in black nationalist ideologies, a development that will lead inevitably to a frightening racial nightmare."
The clergymen also disapproved of tensions created by public actions such as sit-ins and marches. King confirmed that he and his fellow demonstrators were indeed using nonviolent direct action in order to create "constructive" tension. The tension was intended to compel meaningful negotiation with the white power structure without which true civil rights could never be achieved. Citing previous failed negotiations, King wrote that the black community was left with "no alternative". "We know through painful experience that freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be demanded by the oppressed."
The clergymen also disapproved of the timing of public actions. In response, King said that recent decisions by the SCLC to delay its efforts for tactical reasons showed that it was behaving responsibly. He also referred to the broader scope of history, when Wait' has almost always meant 'Never. Declaring that African Americans had waited for the God-given and constitutional rights long enough, King stated that "justice too long delayed is justice denied." Listing numerous ongoing injustices toward black people, including himself, King said, "Perhaps it is easy for those who have never felt the stinging darts of segregation to say, 'Wait. Along similar lines, King also lamented the "myth concerning time" by which white moderates assumed that progress toward equal rights was inevitable and so assertive activism was unnecessary. King called it a "tragic misconception of time" to assume that its mere passage "will inevitably cure all ills". Progress takes time as well as the "tireless efforts" of dedicated people of good will.
Against the clergymen's assertion that demonstrations could be illegal, King argued that civil disobedience was not only justified in the face of unjust laws but also was necessary and even patriotic:
Anticipating the claim that one cannot determine such things, he again cited Christian theologian Thomas Aquinas by saying any law not rooted in "eternal law and natural law" is not just, while any law that "uplifts human personality" is just. Segregation undermines human personality, ergo, is unjust. Furthermore:
I submit that an individual who breaks a law that conscience tells him is unjust, and who willingly accepts the penalty of imprisonment in order to arouse the conscience of the community over its injustice, is in reality expressing the highest respect for law.
King cited Martin Buber and Paul Tillich with further examples from the past and present of what makes laws just or unjust: "A law is unjust if it is inflicted on a minority that, as a result of being denied the right to vote, had no part in enacting or devising the law." In terms of obedience to the law, King says citizens have "not only a legal but a moral responsibility to obey just laws" and also "to disobey unjust laws." King stated that it is not morally wrong to disobey a law that pertains to one group of people differently from another. Alabama has used "all sorts of devious methods" to deny its black citizens their right to vote and thus preserve its unjust laws and broader system of white supremacy. Segregation laws are immoral and unjust "because segregation distorts the soul and damages the personality. It gives the segregator a false sense of superiority and the segregated a false sense of inferiority." Even some just laws, such as permit requirements for public marches, are unjust when they are used to uphold an unjust system.
King addressed the accusation that the Civil Rights Movement was "extreme" by first disputing the label but then accepting it. Compared to other movements at the time, King found himself as a moderate. However, in his devotion to his cause, King referred to himself as an extremist. Jesus and other great reformers were extremists: "So the question is not whether we will be extremists, but what kind of extremists we will be. Will we be extremists for hate or for love?" King's discussion of extremism implicitly responded to numerous "moderate" objections to the ongoing movement, such as US President Dwight Eisenhower's claim that he could not meet with civil rights leaders because doing so would require him to meet with the Ku Klux Klan.
King expressed general frustration with both white moderates and certain "opposing forces in the Negro community." He wrote that white moderates, including clergymen, posed a challenge comparable to that of white supremacists: "Shallow understanding from people of good will is more frustrating than absolute misunderstanding from people of ill will. Lukewarm acceptance is much more bewildering than outright rejection." King asserted that the white church needed to take a principled stand or risk being "dismissed as an irrelevant social club." Regarding the black community, King wrote that we need not follow "the 'do-nothingism' of the complacent nor the hatred and despair of the black nationalist."
In the closing, King criticized the clergy's praise of the Birmingham police for maintaining order nonviolently. The recent public displays of nonviolence by the police were in stark contrast to their typical treatment of black people and, as public relations, helped "to preserve the evil system of segregation." It is wrong to use immoral means to achieve moral ends but also "to use moral means to preserve immoral ends." Instead of the police, King praised the nonviolent demonstrators in Birmingham "for their sublime courage, their willingness to suffer and their amazing discipline in the midst of great provocation. One day the South will recognize its real heroes."
Publication
King wrote the first part of the letter on the margins of a newspaper, which was the only paper available to him. He then wrote more on bits and pieces of paper given to him by a trusty, which were given to his lawyers to take back to movement headquarters, where the pastor Wyatt Tee Walker and his secretary Willie Pearl Mackey began compiling and editing the literary jigsaw puzzle. He was eventually able to finish the letter on a pad of paper his lawyers were allowed to leave with him.
An editor at The New York Times Magazine, Harvey Shapiro, asked King to write his letter for publication in the magazine, but the Times chose not to publish it. Extensive excerpts from the letter were published, without King's consent, on May 19, 1963, in the New York Post Sunday Magazine. The letter was first published as "Letter from Birmingham Jail" in the June 1963 issue of Liberation, the June 12, 1963, edition of The Christian Century, and the June 24, 1963, edition of The New Leader. The letter gained more popularity as summer went on, and was reprinted in the July 1963 edition of The Progressive under the headline "Tears of Love" and the August 1963 edition of The Atlantic Monthly under the headline "The Negro Is Your Brother". King included a version of the full text in his 1964 book Why We Can't Wait.
The letter was anthologized and reprinted some 50 times in 325 editions of 58 readers published for college-level composition courses between 1964 and 1968.
U.S. Senator Doug Jones (D-Alabama) led an annual bipartisan reading of the letter in the U.S. Senate during his tenure in the United States Senate in 2019 and 2020, and passed the obligation to lead the reading to Sen. Sherrod Brown (D-Ohio) upon Jones' election defeat.
Notes
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Full text in HTML at the University of Pennsylvania
Full text in PDF at Stanford
A Reading of the Letter from Birmingham Jail on YouTube, from The Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race and Ethnicity
Panel discussion on "Letter from Birmingham Jail" with Julian Bond, Stephen L. Carter, Gary Hall, Walter Isaacson, Eric L. Motley, and Natasha Trethewey, February 24, 2014, C-SPAN
1963 in Alabama
1963 documents
American political philosophy literature
April 1963 events in the United States
History of Birmingham, Alabama
Open letters
Prison writings
Protestantism and politics
United States documents
Works by Martin Luther King Jr.
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356396
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kovalam
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Kovalam
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Kovalam is a region in the city of Trivandrum, around 13 km southwest of the city center, whose beaches are a tourist destination.
Etymology
Kovalam means "coconut grove," after the coconut trees which are common there.
History
Kovalam first received attention when the Regent Maharani Sethu Lakshmi Bayi of Travancore constructed her beach resort, Halcyon Castle, here towards the end of the 1920s. Thereafter the place was brought to the public eye by her nephew the Maharaja of Travancore. The European guests of the then Travancore kingdom discovered the potentiality of Kovalam beach as a tourist destination in the 1930s. In the early 1970s many hippies came on their way to Ceylon in the Hippie Trail, beginning the transformation of a casual fishing village of Kerala into a significant tourist destination.
Geography
Beaches
Kovalam has three beaches separated by rocky outcroppings in its 17 km coastline, the three together form the famous crescent of the Kovalam beach.
Lighthouse Beach
The southernmost beach, the Lighthouse Beach, is the one most frequented by tourists. It got its name due to the old Vizhinjam Lighthouse located on top of the Kurumkal hillock, 35 metres high. The lighthouse is built using stones, is colored in red and white bands and enjoys a height of 118 feet. It's intermittent beams at night render the beach with an unearthly charm.
Hawah Beach
Eve’s Beach, more commonly known as Hawa Beach, ranks second, in the early day, is a beehive of activities with fishermen setting out for sea. With a high rock promontory and a calm bay of blue waters, this beach paradise creates a unique aquarelle on moonlit nights.
Samudra Beach
A large promontory separates this part from the southern side. Samudra Beach doesn't have tourists thronging there or hectic business. The local fishermen ply their trade on this part.
Detour past Kovalam junction to land on Samudra Beach which is to the north of Ashoka Beach. One has the option to walk along the sea-wall too. The sight of the waves lashing on the rocks below is awesome.
Shallow waters stretching for hundreds of metres are ideal for swimming. The beaches have steep palm covered headlands and are lined with shops that offer all kinds of goods and services.
Places to visit
Karamana River - Karamana River originates from the southern part of Sahyadri Range. The river predominantly flows through an outskirt region of Kovalam called Karmana, hence the nomenclature.
Vellayani Lake
Halcyon Castle
Kovalam Art Gallery
Valiyathura Pier
Neyyar Dam
Aruvikkara Dam
Thiruvallam Parasurama Temple
Vizhinjam Rock Cut Cave Temple
Tourist facilities
There are a large number of beach resorts in and around Kovalam. The sea port of Vizhinjam is about 3 km away and famous for its special varieties of fish, old Hindu temples, big churches and a mosque. The Proposed International Trans shipment Terminal at Vizhinjam is also close to Kovalam.
Kovalam was among the most prominent tourist spots in India during the hippy era. It still has a high status among tourists, who arrive mostly from Europe and Israel. Kovalam is finding a new significance in the light of several Ayurvedic salons, and recuperation and regeneration resorts which provide a wide variety of Ayurvedic treatments for tourists.
Transport
The nearest train station is Thiruvananthapuram Central railway station, about away. The nearest airport is Trivandrum International Airport, about away.
Politics
Kovalam assembly constituency is part of Trivandrum (Lok Sabha constituency). In 2016 Kerala Assembly elections, M Vincent of the Indian National Congress defeated incumbent Jameela Prakasham by over 2,500 votes.
Gallery
See also
A few other beaches in Kerala
Kollam Beach
Varkala Beach
Shankumugham Beach
References
External links
Beaches of Kerala
Tourist attractions in Thiruvananthapuram
Villages in Thiruvananthapuram district
Populated coastal places in India
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356402
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koena%20tribe
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Koena tribe
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The Bakoena or Bakwena ("those who venerate the crocodile") are a large clan in Southern Africa. They form part of the Sotho-Tswana Bantu peopleand can be found in different countries such as Lesotho, Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Eswatini. Their main languages are Sesotho and Setswana.
Their earliest known history is that Koena was a grandson of Masilo I, the king of Bakoena around AD 1360. Koena and his followers settled at Tebang, now called Heidelberg. Around AD 1500, Bakoena started spreading in the region, from the Lekwa or Vaal river to Kalahari (Botswana). Kgabo II led a small group of Bakoena to found a tribe on the lands of the Bakgatla tribe which they drove away. As the result of a split, several tribes were formed and settled in a circular way, with the paramount Kwena settling at Ntsoana-Tsatsi with the Bafokeng around AD 1580.
"Koena" ("Kwena") is a Sotho/Tswana word meaning "crocodile", the crocodile is also their totem.
Sotho-Tswana peoples in South Africa
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356403
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titus%20Flavius%20Vespasianus
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Titus Flavius Vespasianus
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Titus Flavius Vespasianus may refer to two Roman emperors:
The elder Titus Flavius Vespasianus, who took the name Caesar Vespasianus Augustus, and is better known in English as the emperor Vespasian
his son, Titus Flavius Vespasianus, known as the emperor Titus
Flavii
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